The Role of Severe Justice in the Turkish State

Justice as the Binding Force of the Empire

What truly closes all divisions and heals the many wounds within the Turkish political system is the speed and severity of its justice. This justice does not carefully separate different kinds of crimes, nor does it weigh them with fine distinctions. Instead, it treats almost every serious offense—especially those connected to the state and public order—as equally dangerous.

For such crimes, the punishment is often the harshest possible: death. This applies particularly to offenses that touch the authority of the government or threaten the common interest. In these matters, mercy is rare, and delay is almost unknown. Judgment is quick, punishment follows immediately, and examples are made openly Sightseeing Tour Sofia.

Equality of Crimes and Punishments

In this system, justice does not greatly consider whether a crime is committed for private gain or public harm. It does not carefully divide punishment according to intention or circumstance. Rather, it assumes that any action which weakens obedience or challenges authority must be crushed completely.

This approach may appear cruel and unjust by the standards of more moderate governments. However, within this empire, it serves a clear purpose. Fear of severe punishment restrains ambition and prevents rebellion. Men are discouraged from testing the limits of power, because the cost of failure is absolute ruin.

Preventing Disorder and Division

Without this strict remedy, the state would quickly suffer from its own internal corruption. The unchecked desires, ambitions, and rivalries of powerful officials would poison the body of the empire. Provinces far from the imperial capital would begin to act independently, encouraged by distance and opportunity.

Governors in remote regions, seeing their own strength and wealth grow, would hope to become absolute rulers themselves. Step by step, the empire would break apart into smaller lordships and independent powers. History has shown that such divisions often begin not with open rebellion, but with small acts of disobedience left unpunished.

Fear as a Tool of Stability

The Turkish system uses fear as a tool to maintain unity. While this method lacks kindness and moral balance, it achieves order through force. Justice, though harsh, is applied with speed and certainty, which leaves little room for plotting or delay.

This severe discipline holds together a vast and diverse empire, made up of many peoples, languages, and regions. It restrains even the most powerful officials, reminding them that no position is secure if loyalty fails.

A Harsh but Effective Remedy

Though such justice may offend reason and humanity, it has proven effective in preserving the empire’s strength. It acts as a binding cement, holding together a political structure that might otherwise collapse under the weight of ambition and corruption.

In this way, severity replaces wisdom, and fear takes the place of virtue—but the state endures.

The Maxims of Turkish Government

Introduction to a Different Form of Rule

The constitution of the Turkish government is very different from most other governments in the world. For this reason, it must be supported by its own special rules and principles. These rules, which may be called maxims, are the foundations upon which the state is built and preserved. Without understanding these guiding ideas, it is not possible to understand how this government continues to exist and function.

I have begun this work knowing well that it is full of difficulty and labor. To trace the true nature of government, even in the best and most carefully formed commonwealths—those supported by both reason and religion—is no easy task. It is like trying to solve a deep mystery, because the actions of governments are often hidden, complex, and shaped by many forces Sightseeing Tour Sofia.

The State Compared to a Ship at Sea

Many writers have compared a commonwealth to a ship, and this comparison is useful in many ways. A ship moves across the sea, guided by changing winds and weather, and it leaves only a faint and temporary mark on the water behind it. In the same way, good government moves through the uncertain sea of human affairs.

Its path is not fixed or easily traced, because it must respond to different times, situations, chances, and events. What worked in one moment may not work in another. For this reason, government often leaves no clear track that others can follow exactly.

Unchanging Foundations of Government

Yet even with all this uncertainty, every government must have certain fixed rules. These rules are the pillars and foundations of the state. They are not easily changed by time, accident, or circumstance. They are so essential that if they are removed or altered, the entire structure of government must change as well.

Such a change may come through conquest, when a new ruler imposes new laws, or through civil disorder and internal revolutions. In either case, the original model of government is shaken and reshaped into something new.

Purpose of This Work

Of these fixed and guiding maxims—well known to anyone who has spent time in the Ottoman court—I have made a careful collection. Under each main point, I have added reflections and observations drawn from my own experience and study.

In my hours of leisure, I have examined these principles thoughtfully, testing them against reason and virtue, as far as my limited judgment allows. I have also compared them with the governing principles of other great empires, to which God has granted wide authority and power.

My aim is to help the reader understand not only what these maxims are, but also why they exist, and how they support a form of government so different from our own.

An Epistle to the Reader

Sources of Information and Experience

Dear Reader,

In the course of my residence and service, I gained not only access but also a level of familiarity that appeared as friendship. Through this trust, I was able to receive accurate information about the Seraglio, the education of youth, and many other matters concerning custom, law, and government.

These accounts were not gathered from careless rumor or idle talk. They were shared with me by several sober and well-informed persons who had been trained in the best traditions of Turkish learning. Among them was a particularly knowledgeable man from Poland, who had spent nineteen years within the Ottoman court. From such sources, I was able to form a clearer and more reliable understanding of the inner workings of that empire Sightseeing Tour Sofia.

Reflections on the Mahometan Religion

If, reader, the superstition, vanity, and weak foundations of the Mahometan religion appear to you like a dream, or the invention of a troubled and misguided mind, then give thanks to God that you were born a Christian. Be thankful also that you live within the bounds of a holy and orthodox Church, where faith is supported by reason and long tradition.

This comparison is not made to mock others, but to remind you of the value of what you have received. Many are born into beliefs they never chose, and it is wisdom to reflect upon the fortune of one’s own condition.

On Government, Liberty, and Power

If the tyranny, oppression, and cruelty of that state seem strange and shocking to your sense of freedom—where reason has little weight against the pride and desire of unchecked ministers—then again give thanks. You are born in a country that is among the most free and just in the world, and you are a subject of one of the most gracious and merciful princes known.

In such a land, a man may truly call his wife, his children, and the fruits of his labor his own. They are protected by law and defended by the strong arm of a fortunate and valiant king. This security allows people to live without constant fear and to enjoy the rewards of honest work.

A Call to Gratitude and Contentment

Learn, therefore, to value and protect your own freedom by comparing it with the servitude of foreign nations. Let this understanding lead you to bless God and honor your king. May your happiness bring you contentment, without falling into carelessness, pride, or a desire for rebellion.

Dedication to a Noble Patron

My Lord,

Your Lordship’s most humble, most faithful, and most devoted servant,

Paul Rycaut

An Epistle to the Reader

A Respectful Address to the Reader

Courteous Reader,

I present to you a true and careful description of the government and religion of the Turks. This work is meant to give a clear and well-ordered understanding of their system, rather than a collection of loose observations. Many travelers before me have written about Turkey only as they passed through it. They recorded what they saw or heard by chance during their journeys, often relying on stories told by fellow passengers or strangers met along the way.

Such accounts, though sometimes entertaining, are often uncertain. They are easily filled with errors and misunderstandings, because they come from brief encounters and second-hand reports. A traveler who stays only a short time in a country cannot fully understand its laws, customs, or deeper political structure Sightseeing Tour Sofia.

Long Residence and First-Hand Experience

My own experience is of a different kind. I lived in the Imperial City for five full years. During that time, I also traveled through many parts of Turkey. In addition, I served as Secretary to the Earl of Winchilsea, Lord Ambassador. This position allowed me regular and direct access to the chief ministers of state.

Through constant contact with them, and through many important negotiations that passed through my hands in the Turkish court, I was able to look more deeply into the workings of this government. What may seem strange or even barbarous to a hurried traveler becomes clearer when carefully observed over time. Long residence allows a person to see not only what appears on the surface, but also the rules, habits, and reasons that guide a society.

Sources of Information and Careful Study

The calculations I have made about the value of offices, and about the strength and number of soldiers in different cities and regions, are not guesses. They are taken from official registers and records used by the Turks themselves. My observations about their political system come either from principles explained by experienced ministers or from conclusions I reached through long personal experience.

As for their religion, I have described their articles of faith as they were explained to me by learned doctors and preachers of their law. I spoke with these men directly, sometimes with the help of gifts or payments, which allowed open and honest discussion.

Purpose of This Work

My aim is to provide a clear, reliable, and well-grounded account. I hope this work will help the reader understand the Turkish state and religion more accurately than writings based only on brief travel and uncertain reports.

The Rise of Janissary Power

The Retreat of the Spahis

After failing to achieve their demands, the Spahis withdrew and scattered to their own regions. This retreat greatly strengthened the confidence and pride of the Janissary faction. Seeing their rivals fall back, the Janissaries believed themselves victorious and unchallenged.

At the head of this powerful group stood three men. The first was Bektas Aga, the chief commander of the Janissaries and a man highly favored by the Queen Regent. The second was Kul Kiahia, the lieutenant of the Janissaries. The third was Kara Chiaus, a close follower and supporter of Bektas Aga. These three men soon acted as if they were the true rulers of the empire Daily Sofia Tour.

Secret Councils and Dangerous Plans

Together, they took control of public affairs and began to rule through secret councils. Their main goal was the complete destruction of the Spahis, especially those who were known for their wealth, courage, and influence. They believed that as long as the Spahis remained strong, their own power would never be secure.

As an early and striking example of their cruelty, they ordered the Pasha of Anatolia to take the life of Gürcü Nebi, the respected leader of the Spahis. The Pasha obeyed. One day, Gürcü Nebi was attacked in his own quarters. His soldiers, either frightened or bribed, abandoned him. He was shot with a pistol, and his head was sent to Constantinople as proof of his death.

The Spahis Seek Revenge

This act enraged the Spahis across Anatolia. They met in secret, holding private councils and forming conspiracies against the Janissaries. Their anger quickly turned into violent action. Many Beys and Pashas of Asia joined their cause, including a notable leader named İpsir, who was Circassian by birth but educated in the Seraglio. He was known for his bravery and commanded both men and money.

Under his leadership, the Spahis launched attacks on Janissary quarters throughout Asia. The fighting was harsh and merciless. Many Janissaries were captured, wounded, or killed, and the violence left deep scars on both sides.

A Deepening Civil Conflict

These events marked a dangerous stage in the internal conflict of the Ottoman state. Instead of unity and order, fear and revenge ruled the provinces. Military discipline collapsed, and loyalty to the empire was replaced by loyalty to factions. What had once been a powerful system built on obedience now showed clear signs of decay, as soldiers turned their weapons against one another.

Fear Ambition and Rival Factions at Court

The Mother’s Growing Fear

The Sultan’s mother, already shaken by the violent death of her husband, soon became deeply fearful for the life of her son. She suspected that the old Queen, his grandmother, who had once helped bring about the death of her own husband, might now plan the murder of her grandson as well. This fear grew stronger with every passing day.

Her suspicion was not without reason. She knew well the proud and ambitious nature of the Grandmother, and she was aware of the secret agreements and private communications that the old Queen maintained with the Janissaries. These soldiers held great power in the capital and had already shown themselves willing to remove a Sultan when it suited their interests Daily Sofia Tour.

Seeking Protection Through a New Alliance

Faced with this danger, the Sultan’s mother resolved to form a strong party of her own. She turned to the Spahis, the Pashas, and the Beys—men who had been educated in the Seraglio and who traditionally stood in opposition to the Janissaries. Through letters and trusted messengers, she appealed to them directly.

In her messages, she reminded them of the murder of her husband, Sultan Ibrahim, and spoke openly of the arrogance and cruelty of the Janissaries. She warned that her young son, their lawful and rightful ruler, was held in little respect by these soldiers. She further claimed that if the Spahis did not act quickly to protect themselves, the old Queen would destroy their rank and power entirely.

The March to Scutari

These warnings deeply alarmed the Asiatic Spahis. Believing that their own safety and honor were at risk, they gathered a considerable army and marched to Scutari under the leadership of Gürcü Nebi. There, they openly demanded justice. They called for the punishment of those who had conspired against the sacred life of their former Sultan.

However, the men accused of this crime were under the protection of the Janissaries and supported by the authority of the Queen Regent. This created a dangerous standoff between two powerful military groups, each backed by different figures at court.

The Position of the Grand Vizier

At this critical moment, the Grand Vizier, Morat Pasha, became a central figure. He had been educated among the Janissaries and was highly respected by them. They regarded him almost as an oracle, trusting his judgment and guidance above all others.

Yet his position was extremely delicate. Any action he took risked angering one faction or the other. The empire now stood on the edge of open conflict, driven not by foreign enemies but by fear, ambition, and rivalry within the heart of its own government.

The Ambition of the Old Queen

The Rise of a Child Sultan

After the death of Sultan Ibrahim, who was killed by a conspiracy of the Janissaries, the throne passed to his eldest son, Sultan Mahomet. At the time of his accession, the new Sultan was only nine years old. Because of his young age, the government could not be placed directly in his hands. Therefore, the care of his education and the administration of the empire were entrusted to his grandmother, the old Queen known as Kösem.

She was the widow of Sultan Ahmed and the mother of both Sultan Murat and Sultan Ibrahim. Through many years of experience in court affairs, she had gained great knowledge of government and power. For this reason, she was judged capable of guiding the empire during the Sultan’s minority.

The Ceremony of Inauguration

Soon after his father’s death, the young Sultan was taken to the Mosque of Eyüp, according to ancient custom. There, in a solemn and public ceremony, the sword of authority was fastened to his side. He was then formally proclaimed Emperor, and messengers were sent throughout the provinces to announce his reign. From that moment, Sultan Mahomet was acknowledged as ruler of all the Ottoman lands Daily Sofia Tour.

The Rule of the Grandmother

For a time, the old Queen governed the empire entirely according to her own will. She held the chief authority at court and directed all important matters of state. Her long practice in power made her confident, and she acted as if the government belonged to her by right.

However, this situation soon caused tension within the palace. The young Sultan’s mother, still shaken by the violent death of her husband, lived in constant fear. She worried not only for her own safety but also for the life and authority of her son. She suspected that the old Queen intended to remove the child Sultan in order to place another ruler on the throne whom she could more easily control.

Growing Fear and Secret Designs

As these fears increased, distrust grew between the two women. The court became divided, and secret plans were formed on both sides. The old Queen, driven by ambition and the desire to keep power, gathered supporters and companions who were loyal to her cause. Meanwhile, the Sultan’s mother sought allies to protect her son and secure his throne.

These hidden conflicts eventually led to open danger. The designs of the old Queen against her own grandchild became known, and events moved rapidly toward a tragic conclusion. The struggle for power within the palace would soon end in bloodshed, bringing death not only to the Queen herself but also to those who supported her ambitions.

The Fall of Feminine Rule

Growing Anger Among the Soldiers

For a long time, the government was effectively ruled by women and court favorites. This kind of authority deeply offended the soldiers, who were not accustomed to being commanded in this manner. They viewed it as a form of humiliation and slavery that they could no longer endure. Their anger grew steadily until, at last, they decided to act.

In a sudden and violent uprising, large numbers of soldiers marched to the Seraglio. They were no longer willing to tolerate delays, explanations, or negotiations. Their purpose was fixed, and their resolve was firm.

Demands Made to the Sultan

The soldiers forced the Grand Signior himself to appear before them in the Kiosk, or banqueting house. Without ceremony or formal speech, they demanded the immediate punishment of the favorite eunuchs who, in their view, had corrupted the government and abused their power.

There was no time for argument or defense. The crowd would not listen to reason, nor would they accept any form of delay. Each person accused was seized in turn and executed swiftly. Their bodies were then removed and publicly displayed as a sign of vengeance and warning Daily Sofia Tour.

The Punishment of Mulki and Her Household

The next day, the soldiers turned their anger toward Mulki herself, along with her husband, Schaban Kalfa. Both were captured and put to death. The rebellion did not stop there. Disorder spread throughout the capital, and the danger of complete chaos became real.

However, divisions soon arose between the Spahis and the Janissaries. This internal disagreement gave the chief ministers an opportunity to regain control. By executing several of the most rebellious leaders and enforcing firm justice, they were able to restore a measure of order.

Order Born from Disorder

Thus, from great confusion came a form of stability. In corrupted states, violent tumults have sometimes produced good results by removing dangerous abuses. Although such remedies are harsh and tragic, they have occasionally corrected evils that could not otherwise be resolved.

A Notable Event in Ottoman History

Many other rebellions and mutinies followed in later years. However, none were as shocking or memorable as this one, which led to the death of Kösem, the grandmother of the present Sultan. Because of its importance and lasting impact, the true details of this event deserve to be recorded for future generations, as a warning of how deeply corruption can shake even the strongest empires.

The Principles of Ottoman Power and Survival

Dismissing Warnings and Overconfidence

Some of the Janissary officers strongly advised that the Vizier should be removed at once, using many urgent arguments to support their warning. They believed that sparing his life would bring great danger. However, Bektas Aga dismissed their concerns. He claimed that their advice came from fear, lack of courage, and ignorance of their own strength. He argued that there was very little time left until morning and insisted that even if the Vizier wished to act against them, he had neither the power nor the counsel required to do so. Confident in his position, Bektas believed the threat had passed Tours Sofia.

The Vizier’s Escape to the Seraglio

Once free, the Vizier wasted no time. He hurried toward the Seraglio with only two attendants. As he walked, he thanked God for delivering him from the hands of men he considered cruel tyrants and dangerous villains. His heart was filled with both fear and determination, knowing that his life and the fate of the empire might depend on his next actions.

When he reached the Iron Gate, intending to pass through the gardens as was customary, he was surprised to find the gate open—something entirely against normal practice at that hour. Concerned, he questioned the bostangees, or royal gardeners, about the reason. They could tell him nothing except that the order had come directly from the Old Queen.

The Old Queen’s Secret Preparations

As later events revealed, the Old Queen had expected trusted followers to arrive during the night. She planned to withdraw to a hidden and secure place before daylight, where she could protect herself from the dangers she feared would arise the following day. This quiet preparation showed her awareness of the growing unrest and her desire to survive whatever political storm lay ahead.

A Timely Meeting in the Darkness

After entering the palace grounds, the Vizier moved carefully and silently toward the Sultan’s apartments. By good fortune, he encountered Solyman Aga, the Kızlar Ağa, or Chief Eunuch of the women’s quarters. Solyman Aga was making his rounds near the Old Queen’s chambers when the meeting occurred.

Although the darkness hid the Vizier’s face, Solyman recognized him immediately by his voice. He was astonished by such an unexpected visit at such a late hour. Yet once he understood the seriousness of the situation, he expressed gratitude for the Vizier’s watchfulness and loyalty. He praised his vigilance and attentiveness, recognizing that swift action was necessary to prevent chaos and bloodshed within the palace.

This meeting marked a turning point, as hidden alliances and quiet decisions now began to shape the fate of the throne and the empire itself.

The Vizier Faces the Janissary Leaders

A Cold and Calculated Reception

When the Grand Vizier arrived at the mosque, Bektas Aga did not come forward to meet him in person. Instead, he sent another officer to perform that duty. This neglect deeply offended the Vizier, and his proud spirit could hardly endure such an insult. Yet he restrained his anger, knowing that open resentment would place his life in danger.

Suppressing his emotions, the Vizier approached Bektas Aga and bowed at his feet. Bektas barely rose to acknowledge him and offered only a faint and careless welcome. He then seated the Vizier on his left side, which among the Turkish soldiers is considered the place of honor. This gesture was meant to flatter and disarm him, even while asserting control.

Dangerous Proposals Revealed

Bektas then openly explained the new plans of the Janissary faction. First, he declared that it was necessary to depose the current Sultan and place Prince Suleiman on the throne instead. Second, he demanded that the rules and customs of the Imperial Seraglio be reformed. Finally, he proposed a radical change: that the children gathered each year from many nations to serve the Sultan should no longer be admitted, and that only the sons of Janissaries should be allowed into imperial service in the future.

These proposals were bold, treasonous, and dangerous. Yet the Vizier showed no sign of resistance.

A False Oath of Loyalty

The Vizier agreed to everything that was proposed. He professed sincere affection for Bektas and his party and declared his full support for their cause. To strengthen this deception, he swore a solemn oath upon the Quran, calling terrible curses upon himself and his family if he were not faithful to their plans Tours Sofia.

This performance completely satisfied Bektas. He convinced himself that the Vizier was truly loyal and deeply committed to the Janissary cause. Trusting both this oath and his own power, and believing the Vizier incapable of harming him, Bektas dismissed the assembly and ended the confused and disorderly council, known as the Kalaba Divan.

A Fatal Mistake

However, not all were so easily deceived. Chiachia Bey, the Lieutenant General of the Janissaries, along with Kara Chiaus, strongly criticized Bektas for allowing the Vizier to leave alive. They accused him of grave negligence, warning that he had foolishly allowed a dangerous enemy to escape.

They compared the Vizier to a captured bird released from its cage, now free to fly away and soon return with deadly consequences. In their judgment, sparing the Vizier would prove to be a fatal error—one that would soon bring ruin upon those who believed they had secured his loyalty.

Secret Plots Against the Young Sultan

Janissary Doubts and False Promises

The Janissaries were openly opposed to the new Grand Vizier, knowing well that he did not favor their faction. Still, because of the unstable state of the empire, they chose to act with caution. Instead of resisting him openly, they attempted to win him over with polite words and fair promises, hoping to draw him into their party and weaken his resolve.

At the same time, the Old Queen secretly wrote letters to Bektas Aga. In these messages, she informed him of everything that was discussed within the Seraglio. She accused the Young Queen, the Sultan’s mother, of being the true cause of all recent unrest and disorder. According to her, the only remedy for these troubles was the removal of Sultan Mehmed from the throne.

A Dangerous Plan of Deposition

The Old Queen proposed that the young Sultan should be deposed and replaced by his younger brother, Suleiman. She argued that Suleiman, having a living mother, would be entirely guided and controlled by her authority. She also described him as a strong, healthy, and majestic youth, better suited for kingship, while she portrayed Sultan Mehmed as thin, weak, and unfit to carry the burdens of rule.

Encouraged by these arguments, Bektas Aga called a great council at the Orta Camii, the Janissaries’ mosque. This gathering was large and solemn, attended by many soldiers and by religious lawyers, who held spiritual authority among the Turks. Some came out of loyalty to the Janissaries, others from fear of their power Tours Sofia.

The Vizier Summoned at Night

Only one important figure was absent: the Grand Vizier. Believing he might be persuaded to join their cause, the council sent messengers to invite him. Yet there was another darker purpose. If he opposed their plans, they intended not to allow him to leave the council alive.

The message reached the Grand Vizier late at night, around two hours after sunset. Although it was against the dignity and custom of his office to go anywhere except to his sovereign, he understood the danger of refusal. He decided to hide his true thoughts, suppress his pride, and go forward with caution.

A Walk into Great Danger

Accompanied by only a small private guard, the Vizier went to the mosque. At the entrance, he encountered a terrifying sight: a guard of ten thousand Janissaries, all armed with muskets, their burning matches lit and ready. The sight struck fear into his heart, and for a moment he considered turning back.

But regaining his courage, and knowing that retreat might be taken as a sign of guilt or weakness, he resolved to proceed forward, placing his fate in the hands of prudence and resolve.

Crisis at the Court of the Grand Signior

Advice from the Inner Circle

During this dangerous moment, the Grand Signior received urgent advice from two powerful figures within the palace. One was the Kapı Ağa, the chief officer of the inner court, and the other was Süleyman Ağa, the Kızlar Ağa, or chief eunuch of the women’s quarters. They strongly urged the Sultan to seize this favorable moment to destroy Bektas Aga and his accomplices, whose corruption and arrogance had brought the empire close to ruin.

However, fear and excessive caution delayed this plan. The Sultan hesitated, worried about the strength of the Janissaries and the possible consequences of open confrontation. Instead of acting decisively, the court chose a lesser measure to calm the angry crowd.

The Fall of the Grand Vizier

To satisfy public anger, it was decided that Mecca Ahmet Pasha, who was then Grand Vizier, should be removed from office. Although he held the highest post in government, he was widely known to be submissive to the Janissaries and unwilling to oppose their abuses. His dismissal was carried out immediately, and the imperial seal was taken from him Tours Sofia.

The seal was then given to Siyavuş Pasha, a man known for courage, strength, and military skill. His appointment raised hope among those who wished to restore order and discipline to the state.

A Vizier Under Threat

Siyavuş Pasha was deeply aware of the dangers surrounding his new position. He feared not only for the empire but also for his own life. He remembered the fate of Murad Pasha, one of his predecessors, who had nearly been killed for disagreeing with Bektas Aga and had escaped only by fleeing to Greece.

Determined not to suffer the same fate, Siyavuş Pasha carefully planned how to curb the growing power of Bektas and his supporters.

Growing Disorder in the City

The situation in Constantinople remained tense and dangerous. Janissaries patrolled the streets, refusing to allow even two citizens to walk together, fearing secret meetings and conspiracies. Many craftsmen and tradesmen, accused of leading the recent uprising, were imprisoned without the consent or approval of the new Grand Vizier.

Within the palace itself, divisions deepened. One faction supported the Sultan and sought to eliminate the rebellious Janissary leaders. A plan was made to assassinate Kul Kiahya, the Janissary lieutenant, as he entered the Divan the following day. However, the Old Queen, belonging to the opposing faction, threatened and intimidated the officer assigned to carry out the act, causing the plan to fail.

Rival Queens and Rising Tension

The two queens became bitter enemies. The Sultan’s mother fought to protect her son’s authority, while the Grandmother Queen sought to preserve her own power. As their rivalry intensified, confusion spread throughout the city. Meanwhile, the Janissaries grew uneasy with the appointment of Siyavuş Pasha, knowing well that he was firmly opposed to their lawlessness and excesses.

The Corruption of Bektas Aga

False Wealth and Debased Coinage

On the opposite side stood Bektas Aga, who felt completely secure in his position and power. Believing himself untouchable, he gathered vast wealth through heavy taxes, open robbery, and other dishonest practices. His greed knew no limits. Among his most damaging acts was the order to mint a large quantity of false money in Belgrade.

No fewer than three hundred thousand aspers were coined, but these coins were badly debased. Only one-third of their content was silver, while the remaining two-thirds were made of tin. Though they looked like real currency, their true value was far lower than what they claimed to be.

Bektas Aga then forced these coins into circulation. He distributed them among merchants, craftsmen, and shopkeepers, compelling them to accept the false money as payment. Even worse, he ordered people to exchange this debased coin for gold at an unfair rate, valuing the Hungarian ducat at one hundred and sixty aspers. This rate greatly favored him and caused serious losses to the people.

Public Anger and the First Uprising

The citizens quickly realized that they had been deceived. Traders, artisans, and laborers felt robbed and humiliated. Their anger soon turned into action. The first signs of rebellion appeared in the district of the saddlers in Constantinople, where many craftsmen gathered and openly protested.

The unrest spread with alarming speed. Within a short time, the entire city was in chaos. Shops were closed, crowds filled the streets, and voices of protest echoed through every quarter. What had begun as a complaint against false money became a general revolt against corruption and injustice Tours Sofia.

March to the Seraglio

The crowd, now uncontrollable, moved toward the residence of the Mufti, the highest religious authority in the empire. They forced him to join them, along with the Sheikh, who was the Grand Signior’s official preacher, and the Nakibü’l-Eşraf, the chief representative of the Prophet’s descendants.

These religious leaders were compelled to act as witnesses and mediators. Together with the angry people, they marched to the Seraglio. At the inner gate of the royal palace, the crowd raised loud cries and demands. With shouting and protest, they presented their complaints against Bektas Aga’s corruption, the false coinage, and the suffering of the people.

A City on the Edge

This moment marked a turning point. The unrest was no longer hidden or local. It stood directly before the throne, supported by religious authority and driven by public anger. What followed would decide whether justice would be restored—or whether violence would rule the empire.

Haralampy Tatcheff and Decorative Art in Bulgaria

Among Bulgarian artists, Haralampy Tatcheff stands out as the leading figure in decorative art. He graduated from the School of Painting in Sofia, but during his studies he did not find a teacher whose instruction matched his talent or ambitions. As a result, Tatcheff owes most of his artistic development to private study, continuous practice, and careful observation of Western European masters as well as nature itself.

Mastery of Ornament and Design

Tatcheff possesses a deep knowledge of both ancient Bulgarian ornamentation and modern Bulgarian decorative styles. He has studied traditional motifs with great care and has freely adapted them to modern artistic needs. His work shows a successful balance between respect for tradition and creative freedom. Rather than copying old patterns mechanically, he reshapes them into living forms suitable for contemporary use.

A major achievement of Tatcheff is that he was the first Bulgarian artist to work systematically on book covers, vignettes, and stained-glass painting. In these fields he laid the foundations for modern Bulgarian graphic and decorative design. His book covers are especially notable for their harmony of line, colour, and lettering, and for the way they enhance the meaning of the text rather than merely decorating it Customized Turkey Tour.

Independence and Artistic Discipline

Without strong institutional support, Tatcheff developed an independent artistic vision. His success is the result of discipline, perseverance, and wide cultural knowledge. Through constant effort, he helped raise decorative art in Bulgaria to a higher artistic level and inspired younger artists to take this field seriously.

The State of Sculpture in Bulgaria

In contrast to decorative art, sculpture in Bulgaria remains poorly developed. One major reason is the puritanical attitude of Bulgarian public opinion toward undraped figures, especially the human nude. This social restraint has greatly limited the freedom of sculptors and restricted the natural development of the art.

Bulgarian Sculptors and Their Challenges

Among the sculptors who showed early promise, Marin Vassileff was never able to rise above a conventional style, despite his technical training. His works lack originality and emotional depth. Yekho Spiridonoff, on the other hand, possesses undeniable talent, but so far has produced only a small body of work. Whether due to limited opportunities or personal circumstances, his potential has not yet been fully realised.

While Bulgarian sculpture continues to face serious obstacles, decorative art—thanks largely to artists like Haralampy Tatcheff—has made significant progress. Tatcheff’s work proves that dedication, cultural awareness, and artistic independence can overcome institutional and social limitations, and it marks an important chapter in the history of Bulgarian art.

Alexander Bojinoff A Unique Artistic Figure

Alexander Bojinoff occupies a unique position in Bulgarian art as both a portraitist and a caricaturist. He is one of the most popular and widely imitated artists not only in Bulgaria, but also among other Southern Slav nations. Few artists of his time achieved such broad public recognition or exercised such a strong influence on younger generations.

Success in Many Fields

Bojinoff has enjoyed success in many artistic and literary fields. He is known as a poet, a feuilleton writer, a symbolic painter, and also as a painter of landscapes and portraits. Despite this wide range of talents, the general public mainly associates his name with caricature, the field in which he truly excels. His caricatures stand out both for their originality of idea and for the precision of their execution.

Although caricature brought him fame, Bojinoff himself does not consider it his highest artistic achievement. He places greater value on his symbolical paintings and landscapes, which he regards as more personal and spiritually meaningful expressions of his art Customized Turkey Tour.

Master of Caricature

In his caricatures of public figures—politicians, poets, writers, and other notable personalities—Bojinoff goes far beyond mere physical likeness. He succeeds in capturing not only the typical features of the face, but also the mental, moral, and psychological traits of his subjects. Their habits, attitudes, and inner character are clearly revealed, often with sharp wit and subtle irony.

Symbolism and Artistic Technique

Bojinoff’s symbolical works are marked by a strong spiritual conception. They reflect ideas rather than outward appearances and often invite reflection rather than immediate admiration. He rarely works in oil paints, preferring pastel, watercolour, and pen, which better suit his quick, expressive style.

His limited use of oils is largely due to practical reasons. As a regular contributor to the daily press, Bojinoff has always been pressed for time and distracted by many professional obligations. Faster techniques allow him to respond immediately to ideas and events.

Education and Personal Effort

Bojinoff studied for a short time at the School of Painting in Sofia and later spent a considerable period in Munich, although he never attended the Academy there. Unlike many academically trained artists, Bojinoff owes his artistic success mainly to hard work, discipline, and perseverance. His career is a strong example of how personal effort and originality can compensate for the lack of formal academic training.

Women Artists in Bulgarian Art

Several women artists have played an important role in the development of Bulgarian art, especially in specialized fields. Mme Anna Josephoff (née Hahn) is widely recognized as the best painter of flowers in Bulgaria. Her works are admired for their freshness, sensitivity, and careful observation of nature. She succeeds in giving flowers both beauty and character, without making them look artificial or overly decorative.

Another notable artist is Mme Hadji-Mitcheff (née Brown), who holds a unique position in Bulgarian art as the only miniature painter in the country. Miniature painting requires extreme precision, and Mme Hadji-Mitcheff shows great skill in this demanding form. She possesses a strong sense of line, delicate and refined colouring, and a confident hand. Her ability to render fine details, especially in hair, clothing, and facial features, gives her miniatures clarity and elegance Customized Turkey Tour.

A third woman artist worth mentioning is Mme Naoumoff (née Ostroveka). She is best known as a portrait painter, particularly in pastel, a medium that demands sensitivity and control. Her portraits are valued for their softness, expressive quality, and psychological insight.

Portraiture in Bulgarian Art

Portrait painting has attracted many Bulgarian artists, and very few have not tried their hand at it at some point in their careers. Among the older generation, Ivan Markvitchka achieved notable success as a portraitist. However, the title of the best Bulgarian portrait painter undoubtedly belongs to Nicolas Mihalloff.

The Artistic Path of Nicolas Mihalloff

Mihalloff received a broad artistic education, studying in Sofia, Munich, Paris, and London. Before focusing on portraiture, he spent a long period copying both old and modern masters, which helped him develop strong technical skills. He also experimented with large compositions inspired by Bulgarian folklore. While these works showed merit, especially in their colouring, they lacked a truly Bulgarian spirit.

Influences and Personal Style

In these early works, Mihalloff was clearly influenced by artists such as Böcklin, Franz Stuck, and Ludwig von Hoffmann. Traces of these influences can even be found in some later paintings. In contrast, his portraits reveal a much more personal and independent style. Although influences from Rubens, Lenbach, Stuck, Hubermann, and F. A. von Kaulbach were visible for a time, Mihalloff eventually developed his own approach.

Strengths and Limitations

As a portraitist, Mihalloff has a remarkable ability to capture the most characteristic features of a face, especially by concentrating expression in the eyes. He also excels at rendering what is most typical and individual in his subjects. However, his work sometimes suffers from overproduction, which can affect the quality of execution. Among his finest portraits are those of his wife, which stand out for their intimacy and artistic depth.

Early Artistic Difficulties

The artistic path first chosen by Peter Morozoff was full of difficulties. The symbolic form of art that initially attracted him is, by its nature, hard to master. In Morozoff’s case, these difficulties were made even greater by a technique that was often conventional and not always confident. His early works showed ambition and imagination, but they also revealed uncertainty in execution.

The reception of these early symbolic paintings was only moderately successful. This limited success soon led Morozoff to reconsider his artistic direction. Realizing the challenges he faced, he decided to abandon his highly symbolic interpretation of nature and return to the more familiar ground of ordinary natural scenery. This change was largely welcomed, as many of his earlier works suggested that he did not yet have a firm understanding of natural forms Customized Turkey Tours.

Return to Nature

In his later landscapes, Morozoff focuses once again on nature as it appears through the changing seasons. Autumn seems to be his preferred time of year, perhaps because its colors and atmosphere allow for emotional expression. Although he no longer relies on overt symbolism, his landscapes are still filled with a quiet, symbolic meaning that gives unity and mood to the scene.

Nature in these paintings is not simply copied from life. Instead, it is shaped by the artist’s inner feeling, which brings harmony and coherence to the composition. This approach shows clear artistic growth and a better balance between imagination and observation.

Artistic Weaknesses and Public Appeal

Despite this progress, Morozoff does not always succeed in capturing the most essential features of the landscapes he paints. At times, he shows a tendency to rely on easy or exaggerated effects, which weaken the deeper artistic value of his work. However, these same qualities have helped him gain popularity with the general public.

His paintings are visually attractive and emotionally accessible, making them easy to appreciate and commercially successful. While this may reduce their artistic depth, it has provided Morozoff with public recognition and financial reward.

New Influences and Portrait Painting

A stay of several months in Paris appears to have had a strong influence on Morozoff’s development. This experience opened new artistic possibilities for him. Inspired by what he encountered there, he has recently turned to portrait painting, bringing to this new field the same energy and enthusiasm that marked his earlier artistic phases.

A Modest Apology for the Subject

The author begins by admitting that the subject of this discourse may appear unworthy of a statesman’s valuable time. Many people regard the Ottoman Empire as barbarous, and for this reason believe it does not deserve serious attention. Because of this common prejudice, the author fears that the contents of his work might seem unimportant or unrefined.

Yet he argues that true knowledge, even when drawn from unfamiliar or misunderstood sources, has great value. He compares such knowledge to a precious jewel, like a turquoise or another rare stone, set among the many fine gems of the reader’s wisdom and virtue. Though small in appearance, it adds beauty and depth to the whole.

Barbarity as a Matter of Perspective

The author explains that things are often called “barbarous” simply because they are different from what we know. Customs, manners, and ways of life that do not match our own fashions are quickly judged as inferior. This judgment, he suggests, comes not from reason, but from ignorance and lack of familiarity Guided Round Tours Turkey.

When people encounter habits unlike their own, they often form unfair opinions. Difference is mistaken for inferiority. The author reminds the reader that prejudice is frequently born from distance and misunderstanding rather than careful observation.

A Wise and Balanced Judgment

Turning again to the person addressed, the author expresses confidence in the reader’s wisdom. He believes that this statesman judges human actions carefully and fairly. Rather than measuring societies by outward appearances, clothing, or customs, he examines their fundamental principles, institutions, and systems of order.

Such a method of judgment, the author argues, leads to more accurate conclusions about politics and government. True policy and sound administration cannot be understood by surface impressions alone.

The True Nature of the Turks

From this broader perspective, the author concludes that the Turks cannot be as savage or uncivilized as they are often described. They are human beings of the same nature and composition as Europeans. Like all peoples, their actions are shaped by laws, traditions, and circumstances.

The author further argues that ignorance and roughness are usually the result of poverty and hardship, not inherent qualities of a nation. Prosperous and well-organized societies naturally develop order, discipline, and intelligence. Since the Ottoman Empire is powerful, wealthy, and stable, it cannot reasonably be considered ignorant or barbarous in the way critics suggest.

Understanding Beyond Appearances

The author urges readers to move beyond stereotypes and superficial judgments. By studying the Ottoman Empire carefully, one may discover reason, structure, and political skill beneath unfamiliar customs.

In closing, the author presents his work as a call for fair judgment and informed understanding. What seems strange or foreign should not be dismissed without thought. True wisdom lies in looking beyond appearances and recognizing the shared humanity and rational order that exist in all great societies.

The Epistle Dedicatory

The author continues his dedicatory address by praising the remarkable success with which the ambassador carried out his mission. He explains that the envoy managed his responsibilities with such skill and dignity that he inspired extraordinary respect among the Turks themselves. His conduct and character created a strong impression at the Ottoman court, where he received honours and courtesies that had never before been granted to an emperor’s representative or to any other Christian ambassador.

Respect Earned at the Turkish Court

The esteem shown to this ambassador was not superficial. According to the author, even the Grand Vizier openly acknowledged his admiration. He declared that he was more pleased that the Emperor had sent such a brave and distinguished person than he would have been if the Emperor had tried to win favor through lavish gifts of money. This statement is presented as a rare and sincere compliment, especially coming from a court known for valuing wealth and material offerings Guided Round Tours Turkey.

Honour Brought to the British Nation

The author then emphasizes that this achievement was not only personal but national. The ambassador’s virtues, diligence, and integrity brought great honour to the British nation, surpassing that of any other representative of the time. Through his service abroad, he gained the highest levels of trust and responsibility in foreign courts. His actions reflected credit not only on himself but also on the country that produced him.

Loyalty to Two Sovereigns

An important point made by the author is the ambassador’s dual loyalty. Although he was born a British subject and served his own king with distinction, he also proved himself a faithful and trusted minister to the Emperor and to the Emperor’s ancestors. In both roles, he acted with honesty, courage, and devotion, showing that true service transcends national boundaries when guided by honour and duty.

A Deed That Saved an Empire

The author reminds the reader of one particularly famous act that secured the ambassador’s lasting reputation. By a single, courageous deed, he helped save the entire German Empire from the treason of Wallenstein. This event, the author says, is so well known that it needs no further explanation. It stands as a public and undeniable example of bravery and loyalty.

A Legacy That Must Not Be Forgotten

Such service, the author argues, can never be forgotten by the German nation. It deserves permanent recognition and a respected place in its history. Gratitude demands that this man’s actions be recorded and remembered, not only as a matter of personal praise, but as an example of how courage, integrity, and dedication can shape the fate of nations.

In closing, the passage presents the ambassador as a model of honourable diplomacy, whose conduct earned respect even from rivals and enemies. His life and service stand as a powerful reminder that character and virtue can achieve what wealth and force alone cannot.

European Contempt and Ottoman Advance

The author explains that contempt for the Turks on one side played a major role in weakening the Christian response to Ottoman expansion. Because the Turks were widely regarded as inferior or uncivilized, the Emperor was slow and hesitant in resisting the powerful Ottoman military force. When war broke out, the Ottoman army advanced like a torrent, overwhelming opposition in the first year before effective resistance could be organized.

Fear of France and Confused Policies

At the same time, the Emperor was troubled by suspicions of French intentions. Fear of France caused confusion and hesitation in imperial decision-making. Although the war initially went well for the Christian side, the Emperor unexpectedly changed course. To the astonishment of Europe—and even of the Turks themselves—the conflict was suddenly ended by a peace treaty that favored the Ottomans.

Many observers were amazed to see the Emperor stop a series of victories and withdraw while success seemed within reach. To those who judged events superficially, this decision appeared strange and even foolish Guided Round Tours Turkey.

The Weak Position of the House of Austria

However, the author argues that this decision makes sense when one considers the fragile condition of the House of Austria. The Emperor faced the possible death or downfall of the King of Spain, a central support of Habsburg power. At the same time, deep divisions among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire weakened unity and trust.

Political Pressure from France and the Rhine League

Further danger came from the League of the Rhine and French political maneuvering. France sought to increase its influence by promoting the Duke of Enghien as King of Poland. French allies made extreme demands for winter quarters and fortified positions—not only in Hungary, but also in Styria and nearby regions. These demands alarmed the Emperor and threatened the stability of his territories.

Internal Disorder and Foreign Armies

The situation was worsened by factions in Hungary and the presence of a large French army inside Germany itself. Many believed that this army was less concerned with fighting the Ottoman enemy and more focused on influencing the next Imperial Diet. There was widespread fear that France aimed to pressure German princes into electing the French king as King of the Romans, thereby controlling the future of the Empire.

Moderation as a Political Necessity

Given these dangers, the author concludes that the Emperor’s best choice was moderation in victory. Continuing the war risked internal collapse and foreign domination. Peace with the Ottomans, though disappointing, allowed the Emperor to stabilize his position and prevent greater disasters.

Diplomatic Efforts Toward Peace

As a result, Count Leslie was sent as an extraordinary ambassador to the Grand Signior. Although the Turks were confident and aware of the Christians’ need for peace, they still entered negotiations. This moment shows that diplomacy, not pride or continued warfare, was the Emperor’s most practical and necessary course.

The passage illustrates how misjudgment, division, and political rivalry among Christian powers weakened their resistance to the Ottoman Empire. It also shows that what appears to be weakness may, in reality, be a calculated act of survival.

A Humble Address to a Statesman

The author begins by expressing humility. He admits that it would be great presumption for him to offer personal observations on the courts of Christian princes to a statesman whose experience and judgment are far superior to his own. The person addressed is clearly well informed, not only about customs and manners, but also about political intentions and secret councils of neighboring states. Such deep knowledge places him far above ordinary observers.

The Author’s Limited but Useful Aim

Despite this modest confession, the author believes he may still offer something of value. Without claiming equal wisdom or overestimating his own abilities, he proposes to present a simple outline of Turkish government, political methods, and social customs. This subject, he argues, deserves serious attention. Too often, travelers have described the Ottoman Empire merely as a curiosity, meant to entertain their readers with strange stories and provoke admiration or surprise.

A Subject Worthy of Serious Consideration

The author insists that the Turkish system of government is not just an object of casual interest. Instead, it should be carefully studied by kings, ministers, and governors, because it has real political importance. The Ottoman Empire is not distant or irrelevant; it directly affects the balance of power in Europe. Ignoring its strength and organization is a dangerous mistake Guided Round Tours Turkey.

A Dangerous Misunderstanding of the Turks

According to the author, one of the greatest errors made by Christian rulers has been to regard the Turks as barbarous and ignorant. This belief, he argues, has proved extremely harmful. Because European princes assumed the Ottomans were backward, they left themselves exposed and unprepared for danger.

Division Among Christian Princes

While Christian states fought among themselves over small pieces of land, the Ottoman Empire acted with unity and purpose. As Europeans competed for minor advantages, the Turks steadily expanded their power. They conquered entire provinces and took possession of some of the richest and most pleasant regions of Europe.

The Strength of Ottoman Policy

The success of the Ottoman Empire, the author suggests, lies not in chance, but in strong policy, discipline, and organization. Its leaders understood how to take advantage of the divisions and rivalries of their enemies. European disunity became the Ottoman opportunity.

A Warning and a Lesson

In conclusion, the author presents his work as both a warning and a lesson. The Ottoman Empire should not be dismissed as uncivilized or insignificant. Its government and policies deserve careful study, especially by those responsible for the safety and future of Christian nations. Only by understanding this powerful neighbor can Europe hope to protect itself from further loss.

The Present State of the Ottoman Empire

This work, titled “The Present State of the Ottoman Empire,” was written to explain the political, religious, and military system of the Turkish state in the seventeenth century. The book aims to give European readers a clear and organized account of how the Ottoman Empire functioned at that time. It is divided into three books, each dealing with a different aspect of Ottoman life and power.

Turkish Government and Political Principles

One of the main subjects of the book is the maxims of Turkish policy, meaning the principles by which the Ottoman state was governed. The author describes how authority was centralized under the Sultan and how loyalty, discipline, and obedience were essential to maintaining order. Government officials were chosen more for their service and ability than for noble birth. This system allowed the Empire to remain strong and efficient over a vast territory Customized Turkey Tour.

The Mahometan Religion and Its Sects

Another important section deals with the Mahometan (Islamic) religion. The author explains its main beliefs, religious laws, and daily practices. He also describes the different sects and heresies, as well as religious communities, convents, and devout followers. These details help the reader understand how religion shaped both public and private life in the Ottoman world.

Military Discipline and Armed Forces

A large part of the book is devoted to the military discipline of the Turks. The Ottoman army is presented as highly organized and well-trained. The author provides a careful calculation of Ottoman forces by land and by sea, showing why the Empire was feared by its enemies. Strict discipline, regular pay, and loyalty to the Sultan were key elements of military success.

Illustrations and Social Life

The book is illustrated with sculptures and images showing the variety of Turkish clothing and social ranks. These visual elements help readers imagine daily life in the Empire and understand the differences between soldiers, officials, religious figures, and ordinary people.

The Author and His Purpose

The author, Paul Rycaut, served as secretary to the Earl of Winchilsea, the English ambassador to Sultan Mehmed IV. After spending five years in Constantinople and travelling back to England by land, he felt it was his duty to present the knowledge he had gained. He dedicated the work to a high-ranking English statesman, expressing gratitude and respect.

Overall, this book is both a political study and a personal account. It reflects the curiosity of seventeenth-century Europe about the Ottoman Empire and remains an important historical source for understanding Turkish government, religion, and military power during that period.

Bulgarian Art and Its Distinct Path

Bulgarian art shows very little connection with Croatian art. The two traditions differ greatly in both artistic goals and methods. While Croatian artists focused strongly on form and technical perfection, Bulgarian artists followed a different direction. Their concerns were not centered on mastering classical techniques but on expressing everyday life and familiar surroundings.

Similarities with Slovenian Art

The main similarity between Bulgarian and Slovenian art lies in their democratic spirit. Both traditions show a strong tendency to choose subjects from local scenery and local people. Bulgarian artists often painted village life, ordinary citizens, and landscapes drawn from their immediate environment. This approach reflects a desire to represent real life rather than heroic history or idealized scenes Customized Istanbul Tours.

However, despite this shared interest in everyday subjects, Bulgarian and Slovenian art differ greatly in technique. Slovenian artists were closely connected to Neo-Impressionism and modern Western artistic movements. Bulgarian artists, by contrast, did not follow these trends as closely and developed their techniques in a more modest and independent way.

Differences from Serbian Art

When compared with Serbian art, Bulgarian art differs most clearly in its choice of subjects. Serbian artists strongly emphasized patriotic and historical themes, using art as a tool to inspire national pride. In Bulgarian art, this patriotic focus is almost entirely absent. Bulgarian painters rarely chose scenes from national history or political struggle.

Instead, they preferred quiet, personal subjects drawn from daily life. This difference gives Bulgarian art a calmer and more intimate character.

Form and Artistic Development

In terms of form, it must be admitted that Serbian artists were generally superior to Bulgarian artists during this period. Serbian painters showed greater technical skill and more freedom from traditional styles. They also produced several artists of outstanding talent, such as Marko Murat and Paja Jovanović, whose work reached an international level. Bulgarian art had not yet produced artists of equal reputation or technical mastery.

Strength of Bulgarian Portraiture

In one important area, however, Bulgarian art stands above not only Serbian art but also Croatian and Slovenian art: portrait painting. Bulgarian artists showed exceptional ability in capturing character, expression, and individuality. Their portraits often reveal deep psychological insight and emotional honesty.

This strength in portraiture reflects the Bulgarian artist’s close observation of people and everyday life. Through portrait painting, Bulgarian art found its most successful and distinctive form of expression, setting it apart within the broader Southern Slav artistic world.

Croatian Artists and Artistic Perfection

When we look at artistic form, the Croatians clearly reached the highest level of perfection among the four nationalities. The works of almost all Croatian artists showed great technical skill and careful planning. Their paintings were marked by a strong and confident use of line, light, colour, perspective, and composition. These elements were not used separately but were skillfully combined to create balanced and complete works of art.

What made Croatian art especially interesting was not only its technical quality, but also the different artistic priorities of individual artists. Some Croatian painters clearly placed form above content. For them, the beauty of structure and technique was more important than the story or message of the painting Customized Istanbul Tours.

Balance Between Form and Content

Other Croatian artists tried to achieve a perfect balance between form and content. They believed that technical mastery and meaningful subject matter should support each other. Their works aimed to be both visually impressive and intellectually satisfying. This approach helped Croatian art appear mature and well developed in comparison with the art of other Southern Slav nations.

A third group of Croatian artists seemed willing to sacrifice form in order to emphasize subject and meaning. These painters focused more on the emotional or symbolic value of their themes, even if this meant breaking traditional rules of composition or technique.

Influence of Impressionism

Among the second and third groups of Croatian artists, we find some who can be linked to the Impressionist and even the Neo-Impressionist schools. These artists experimented with light, colour, and atmosphere, and they moved away from strict academic traditions. However, Impressionism did not fully define Croatian art as a whole.

Slovenian Artists and the Rejection of Tradition

It was the Slovenians, rather than the Croatians, who most clearly rejected the old forms of Western art. Nearly all the leading Slovenian artists belonged to the Neo-Impressionist movement. They broke almost completely with historical and imaginative painting, which had long dominated European art.

Instead of painting scenes from history, religion, or mythology, Slovenian artists limited their subjects to nature and human figures as they appeared outdoors. They preferred to work en plein air, observing real life directly. This approach allowed them to focus on light, movement, and immediate visual experience.

A New Artistic Direction

Through this rejection of traditional themes and methods, Slovenian artists opened a new artistic path. Their work marked a clear step toward modern art and showed a strong desire for innovation and artistic freedom.

Characteristics of Bulgarian Art

The Role of the National Museum

The art gallery of the National Museum in Sofia has existed for almost twenty years. However, it does not always give visitors—especially foreign visitors—a clear and accurate picture of the current state of Bulgarian art. The main purpose of this gallery was to support the aesthetic education of the Bulgarian people. To achieve this goal, the State aimed to collect the best works of Bulgarian artists and make them easily accessible to the public.

From the very beginning, the Government played an important role in building the museum’s collection. It regularly purchased works by Bulgarian artists at national art exhibitions. These purchases helped encourage artists and also helped create a public collection that reflected the artistic life of the country Bulgaria Private Tours.

Early State Purchases and Their Importance

The first official purchases by the State were made between 1892 and 1899. This period began with the first Bulgarian National Exhibition and ended with the last exhibition organised by the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art in Bulgaria. During these years, the museum gradually formed the foundations of its art gallery.

These early acquisitions were especially important because Bulgarian art was still in its formative stage. Many artists were experimenting with new themes and techniques, and the State’s support gave them confidence and recognition. The gallery began to reflect the growing artistic ambition of the young nation.

A Lost Period for the Museum

After 1899, a long pause followed. For seven years, no new works were added to the art gallery of the National Museum. This pause caused a serious loss to the collection. Ironically, these years were among the most productive and dynamic periods in the development of Bulgarian art.

During this time, the Society of Contemporary Art showed great activity. It organised four general exhibitions and seven exhibitions devoted to individual artists. Many of the works shown during these events were of high artistic value and deserved a place in the National Museum.

Reasons for the Interruption

The State did not make any purchases during this period because the National Museum was undergoing expansion. The building works were still unfinished, and the museum had not yet been officially reopened. As a result, the Government chose to postpone acquisitions, even though important artistic opportunities were missed.

Renewal of State Support

The enlarged National Museum officially opened in 1905. After this reopening, the Government returned to its original policy of regularly purchasing new works of art. Since then, the gallery has continued to grow, slowly correcting the gaps created during the years of inactivity and once again supporting the development of Bulgarian art.

Public Support for the Fine Arts in Bulgaria

The clear success of the various art exhibitions held in Bulgaria, together with the growing number of orders given by civil and church authorities, shows that Bulgarian artists have little reason to complain about a lack of public interest in the fine arts. Public opinion has not been indifferent to artistic work. On the contrary, interest has slowly but surely increased.

It must also be said that some exhibitions and many commissioned works did not fully deserve even the moderate expectations of the public. Artistic taste in Bulgaria was still developing, and it was not yet refined or exact. Even so, the public supported exhibitions and artistic projects with goodwill and curiosity. This proves that the general attitude toward art was encouraging, even if critical judgment was still in its early stages Bulgaria Holidays.

Imitation and Foreign Influence

The Situation After Liberation

In the first years after the liberation of the Principality of Bulgaria, foreign artists invited to the country, as well as Bulgarian artists trained in European academies, found that there was no established national art that could meet the needs of the new era. Modern artistic traditions were almost entirely absent.

However, what Bulgaria lacked in institutions and traditions, it more than made up for in inspiration and subject matter. The country presented artists with scenes and themes that were fresh, powerful, and largely untouched by modern life.

Landscape, Legend, and Memory

Artists discovered wild and romantic landscapes, especially in the mountains, valleys, and forests. In popular imagination, these places were still filled with mythical creatures and legendary heroes. Their stories survived in folklore, legends, and national songs that had not yet been changed by modern influences.

The memories of the revolutionary period were also vivid. The struggle against national oppression was still fresh in people’s minds, providing dramatic and emotional subjects for painting and sculpture.

Architecture, Ruins, and National Types

The towns and villages of Bulgaria offered original and striking architecture. Old houses, churches, bridges, and fortifications attracted artists with their unusual forms and rich decorative details. Across the country stood the ruins of ancient churches and fortresses, slowly destroyed by time and neglect, yet full of historical meaning.

Equally attractive were the many national and ethnic types found in Bulgaria. Artists could observe Bulgarians, Turks, Gypsies, and other Oriental peoples, each wearing distinctive and colorful costumes. These figures added life, movement, and character to artistic compositions.

A Country Rich in Artistic Material

When all these elements are considered together—nature, legend, history, architecture, ruins, and living traditions—it becomes clear that Bulgaria offered an exceptional wealth of material for artistic creation. The challenge for artists was not a lack of subjects, but how to transform this richness into a mature and original national art.

The Prince’s Art Collection in Bulgaria

The richest artistic collection in Bulgaria belongs to the Prince. His collection includes many valuable paintings, both by Bulgarian and foreign artists. These works of art are not kept in one single place. Instead, they are distributed among the royal residences in Sofia, Plovdiv, and Varna, as well as in the royal villas at Sitniakovo, in the district of Samokov, and at Joroubliani, near Sofia. In this way, art forms an important part of royal life and culture in different regions of the country.

Bulgarian Art Beyond National Borders

A number of works by Bulgarian artists have gone abroad and are now owned by foreign museums and private collectors. Many foreigners who lived in Bulgaria for some time developed an interest in local art and bought paintings by Bulgarian artists. As a result, Bulgarian art began to gain recognition outside the country Bulgaria Holidays.

The Prince himself also played an important role in spreading Bulgarian art internationally. On several occasions, he presented paintings as gifts to the Regiment of Minsk in Russia, of which he was the honorary colonel. He also gave paintings to his relatives and to members of the diplomatic corps, helping Bulgarian art reach influential circles abroad.

International Exhibitions and Recognition

Bulgarian art received significant attention at international exhibitions. At the first Southern Slav Art Exhibition, held in Belgrade, members of the two Bulgarian art societies, “Modern Art” and “Bulgarian Artists,” took part. On this occasion, King Peter of Serbia purchased several works by Bulgarian artists for his palaces. In addition, the Serbian Government bought a number of Bulgarian paintings for the Serbian National Museum, and some private individuals followed this example.

At the Universal Exhibition in Liège, Belgium, in 1905, several works by Bulgarian artists were sold to foreign collectors. The paintings that attracted the most attention were those with Oriental or distinctly Bulgarian themes, which appeared exotic and interesting to a Western audience.

Bulgarian Artists in Foreign Collections

Several European galleries, including those in Prague and Cologne, own paintings by Jaroslav Veshin. These works focus on Bulgarian life and subjects and were painted after Veshin settled permanently in Bulgaria and became a naturalised citizen.

There are also Bulgarian artists who lived and worked mainly abroad. Two such artists are Binembaum and Paxin, both graduates of the Munich Academy. Paxin became especially well known as a regular contributor to the Munich magazine Simplicissimus and to the Viennese publication Der liebe Augustin, which has since ceased publication.

Through royal patronage, international exhibitions, and the work of Bulgarian artists at home and abroad, Bulgarian art gradually gained international visibility and respect.

State and Church Support for Bulgarian Religious Art

The development of fine arts in Bulgaria was strongly supported by both the State and the Church. Important commissions were given to Bulgarian artists, especially in connection with the construction, restoration, and decoration of religious buildings. These projects provided artists with steady work and allowed them to develop a modern national style in icon painting.

One of the most significant projects was ordered by the Prince, who entrusted a special commission with the task of transforming the former mosque “Tcheraa Djamia” into the Orthodox church “Sveti Sedmotchislenitzi.” This transformation symbolised the cultural and spiritual renewal of Bulgaria after liberation. The decoration of the church required new icons, which were commissioned from the State School of Painting Bulgaria Holidays.

The Role of the Church and Public Committees

The Holy Synod, which supervised the construction of the Theological Seminary in Sofia and its adjoining church, also placed important orders for religious artwork. Similarly, the “Tsar Liberator” Committee, responsible for building the Mausoleum in Plevna in memory of the Russian soldiers who died during the siege, commissioned religious and commemorative art.

Private individuals belonging to the Sofia parishes of St. Sofia and St. Sedmotchislenitzi also contributed by ordering icons for their churches and chapels. In all these cases, the work was carried out by professors and students of the State School of Painting. Among the most active and respected artists involved were Ivan Markvitchka, Anton Mitoff, and Stephan Ivanoff.

The End of Icon Imports and the Rise of Bulgarian Artists

As old churches were repaired and new ones were built, the demand for icons increased. Unlike earlier times, these icons were no longer imported from Russia. Instead, they were painted by Bulgarian artists, marking an important step toward artistic independence and the creation of a national school of icon painting.

Public Access to Artistic Treasures

Many of Bulgaria’s artistic treasures are now preserved in places that are easily accessible to the public. These include the National Museum, the Central Offices of the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank, the Library of the National Assembly, and the Central Hall of the National Assembly.

The walls of the National Assembly are decorated with portraits painted by Nicolas Mihailoff, including images of the Tsar Liberator, the first Bulgarian Prince Alexander, the reigning Prince, the first Bulgarian Princess Maria Louisa, the heir-apparent Prince Boris, and a group of royal children. In addition, an icon of the Bulgarian Saints Cyril and Methodius, painted by Anton Mitoff, holds a place of honor.

Churches and Monuments as Art Centers

Finally, important examples of modern Bulgarian icon painting can be seen in the Church of St. Sofia, the Church of Sveti Sedmotchislenitzi, the chapel of the Theological Seminary in Sofia, and the Mausoleum of Plevna. These buildings serve not only religious purposes but also as living galleries of Bulgarian sacred art.

Through the combined efforts of the State, the Church, and private citizens, Bulgarian religious art found strong support, helping to preserve national traditions and promote local artistic talent.

Official Support for the Fine Arts in Bulgaria

Orders and commissions given by civil and ecclesiastical authorities played an important role in the development of fine arts in Bulgaria. In many cases, these official commissions helped artists just as much as the private buyers who purchased paintings at exhibitions. By providing artists with work, income, and recognition, the State and public institutions helped create stable conditions for artistic activity.

Preserving Bulgarian National Heritage through Art

One of the most valuable initiatives was taken by Dr. Ivan Shishmanoff, while he was editor of the Magazine for Popular Recreation, Science and Literature, published by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Dr. Shishmanoff wished to collect and preserve materials related to Bulgarian ethnography, at a time when traditional ways of life were rapidly disappearing Bulgaria Holidays.

To achieve this goal, he entrusted several artists—especially Ivan Markvitchka—with the task of creating visual records of Bulgarian life. These artists prepared pictures showing national and peasant costumes, traditional tools used in home industries, and the remains of ancient Bulgarian architecture. Their work aimed to preserve the appearance of traditional dress and customs, which modern life threatened to erase. Even if these traditions disappeared in reality, they would survive in printed form within the pages of the Sbornik.

A National Gift to the Russian Tsar

Another important artistic project was initiated in 1896 by Constantin Velitchkoff, then Minister of Public Instruction. On his proposal, the Cabinet Council decided to offer Tsar Nicholas II of Russia a special gift on the occasion of his coronation. This gift took the form of an album of Bulgarian artworks.

The album contained pictures dealing with purely Bulgarian subjects, such as national types, landscapes, villages, revolutionary figures from the period before liberation, as well as Bulgarian and Turkish architecture and ruins. About twenty Bulgarian artists participated in this project and produced sixty-two pictures. This album not only honored the Russian Tsar but also presented Bulgarian culture and history to the outside world.

Portraits of National Leaders

In 1902, Dragan Tzankoff, as President of the National Assembly, commissioned the artist Nicolas Mihailoff to paint portraits of all former Presidents of the Sobranje (the Bulgarian Parliament). These portraits were intended to preserve the memory of Bulgaria’s political leaders and are now displayed in the library of the National Assembly, where they continue to serve both artistic and historical purposes.

Art in Public Institutions

Public institutions also used art to decorate and dignify their buildings. The Central Administration of the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank commissioned Ivan Markvitchka and Anton Mitoff to decorate the ceiling and walls of the Council Hall with frescoes. The subjects of these frescoes were taken from Bulgarian national life, showing rural scenes, labor, and traditional customs.

Through these commissions, the State and public institutions helped preserve Bulgarian heritage, supported artists financially, and strengthened the place of fine arts in national life. These efforts greatly contributed to the growth and stability of Bulgarian art.

The Growing Success of Bulgarian Art

As artistic interest and public taste gradually awakened and developed in Bulgaria, the moral success of Bulgarian art became assured. At first, this success was mainly moral, meaning recognition, respect, and growing appreciation. However, material encouragement and financial prosperity soon followed. Artists began to find buyers for their works, and art slowly became a respected profession.

This progress was visible even at the very first exhibition organised by Ivan Angeloff. At that time, the buyer of the paintings was not a Bulgarian but a foreigner, a Slav, who was deeply impressed by the authentic Bulgarian subjects. He was particularly attracted by paintings such as “The Ruins of St. Sophia” and views of the village of Slivnitza, as well as scenes of Sofia in its Turkish character, before the modern planning and rebuilding of the city had begun. These works preserved images of a disappearing past and appealed strongly to foreign collectors Bulgaria Holidays.

The Role of the State and the National Museum

The first official purchases of Bulgarian paintings by the State were made in 1892 during the Commercial and Industrial Exhibition in Plovdiv. These acquisitions were intended for the National Museum and marked an important step in recognising art as part of the nation’s cultural heritage. From that moment on, the State began to play a more active role in supporting artists and preserving their work.

The Prince as a Patron of the Arts

The most generous supporter of art in Bulgaria has been the Prince, who owns the richest art collection in the country. His personal interest in art and his willingness to purchase paintings and sculptures provided strong encouragement to Bulgarian artists. The Prince’s example also influenced other buyers, including government institutions and private individuals.

Increasing Sales and Successful Exhibitions

With each new exhibition, the number of art purchases steadily increased. In some cases, the success was complete, and every exhibited artwork was sold. This happened during the first exhibition of the Society of Modern Art in 1904 and again at the private exhibition of Alexander Bojinoff and Peter Morozoff in 1906. Such success clearly showed that Bulgarian art had gained both public interest and commercial value.

Financial Support for Major Exhibitions

During the Second Southern Slav Art Exhibition held in Sofia, as well as the exhibition organised at the same time by the Society of Bulgarian Artists to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the State School of Painting, significant financial support was provided. The Prince spent 35,000 francs on acquiring paintings and statues, while the Government granted a credit of 25,000 francs for the same purpose.

These developments demonstrate that Bulgarian art had moved from neglect to recognition and support. Moral success came first, followed by material encouragement, ensuring a more secure and promising future for artists in Bulgaria.