Christian Soldiers under Ottoman Rule

In regions under the control of the Ottoman Empire, Christian subjects often served in the military under their local princes, who were appointed by the Grand Sultan. These soldiers were frequently sent to fight in dangerous battles and undertake desperate missions. While they served loyally, this service was part of a larger system that oppressed Christians and weakened their communities.

The Economic and Social Impact

The oppression of Christians under Ottoman rule had severe effects. Many lost their wealth, and lands that were once fertile became exhausted and unproductive. This impoverishment was intentional, as it prevented Christians from becoming strong and independent. By weakening Christian communities, the Ottoman rulers encouraged some to convert to Islam, increasing the empire’s strength and influence Travel Bulgaria.

Cultural Resistance

Despite the pressure to convert, some Christians found ways to maintain their faith secretly. In Alengrelia, for example, parents would make a small cross on the hands of their children during baptism. In Servia, the custom was to mark the forehead with a special herb that never fades. These marks served as a permanent reminder of their Christian faith. Even if they were pressured to wear the white turban of a Muslim or promised rewards for conversion, these subtle signs allowed them to remain loyal to Christianity.

Preserving Faith under Threat

These practices show the resilience of Christian communities under Ottoman rule. By keeping visible symbols of their faith, many Christians resisted the pressure to abandon their religion, even when facing fear, despair, and the promise of freedom or reward if they converted. This quiet form of resistance helped preserve their religious identity across generations.

The Ottoman Empire’s policy of integrating Christians into the military and society was designed to strengthen the empire while weakening potential opposition. Yet, cultural practices, family traditions, and clever forms of religious expression allowed many Christians to resist assimilation and remain true to their faith. Their endurance demonstrates the deep commitment and creativity of oppressed communities in preserving their beliefs.

The Influence of Turkish Fashion

A wise observer noted how Greek and Armenian Christians often imitate Turkish clothing and customs. They try to look as much like Turks as they dare, and they feel proud when, on special occasions, they are allowed to appear without the usual Christian dress. In this way, Turkish fashion itself becomes a tool to attract people to the Ottoman way of life.

Methods of Control

The Ottoman rulers used many strategies to expand their empire and maintain control. Wealth attracted the greedy, rewards and promises attracted the ambitious, and fear of punishment controlled the cowardly and timid. By appealing to people’s desires, hopes, and fears, the Turks increased their power and extended their influence. Those who remained Christian were treated differently—they were not valued as citizens. Instead, they were seen merely as workers to carry burdens and perform service.

Life for Christian Subjects

Christian subjects were oppressed in many ways. Their property, earned through hard work, could be taken by powerful men. They were disarmed and not allowed to serve in the military. This ensured they remained weak and less likely to rebel against Ottoman authority. Over time, these policies made Christian communities more vulnerable and dependent, while the Ottoman Empire strengthened its control over them.

Exceptions in Eastern Europe

The people of Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia were exceptions. Unlike other Christian subjects within the empire, they had more freedom and were not as easily subdued. In most other regions, however, Christians became effeminate in the sense of being weakened politically and militarily, making them less capable of resisting Ottoman rule Travel Bulgaria.

Through the clever use of fashion, wealth, fear, and social policies, the Ottoman Empire was able to maintain control over diverse populations. Christians who remained in their faith were kept as subservient workers, while those who adopted Turkish customs could rise to positions of influence. This strategy allowed the empire to grow steadily while minimizing rebellion and strengthening loyalty among those who integrated into Turkish society.

The Influence of Fashion and Appearance

One of the main reasons ordinary people were persuaded to become Turks was the attraction of outward appearances. People are often influenced by what they see, and in Ottoman society, those who became Turks could be distinguished by a white turban or other special marks of honor. These symbols showed their rank, religion, or social position. This allowed them to be recognized easily and, in some cases, gave them power to act with authority over others.

The Appeal to Vanity

The fashion and style of the Turks were especially appealing to those who valued appearance and elegance. Just as in England and France, many people admire beauty that follows the current fashions. Young Christians born and raised in these countries could be easily attracted by the elegance of Turkish dress and style. They might even give up their Christian virtues to wear clothing that pleased the eyes of others Travel Bulgaria.

Historical Comparisons

This kind of admiration for foreign styles is not new. After the Romans conquered Britain and other lands, the people began to enjoy Roman language, clothing, banquets, and buildings. They thought these things represented culture, refinement, and civilization. However, as the historian Tacitus noted, adopting the conqueror’s style was also a sign of submission. In other words, while people might enjoy these new fashions and ways, it also marked a loss of their original independence and identity.

Fashion as a Tool of Influence

In the Ottoman Empire, fashion and outward symbols were more than just clothing—they were a tool for social control and assimilation. By offering visible rewards, such as special turbans or dress, the Ottomans could attract and influence young and vain people. These individuals often adapted quickly, becoming part of Turkish society and even gaining privileges that they would not have had otherwise.

The Role of Slaves in the Ottoman Empire

Every day, ships arrived from the Black Sea carrying captives, as we mentioned earlier. Considering the effects of the plague and the destruction caused by wars during the summer months, the Turks would have had fewer reasons to boast about the size of their population. One of the main ways to weaken the Ottoman Empire would have been to stop the capture of so many people or to intercept the slaves who were being transported to Constantinople.

Importance of Slaves

These slaves were essential for the empire. They nourished and supported the households and the government. Over time, they not only served as workers but also became part of society. Many of them converted to Islam and were often freed by their masters. Freed slaves could gain privileges equal to those born into Muslim families. Because of this, the Ottomans could fight wars without worrying much about losing large numbers of men. Soldiers could die in battles, but the empire’s population did not decrease significantly, thanks to the steady supply of slaves.

Comparison with Europe

This is very different from what happened in Spain and Portugal. There, the distinction between old Christians (“viejos”) and new converts (“nuevos”) caused a decline in the population. Many people left their lands or were excluded from full rights, which led to a scarcity of workers and soldiers. Fertile lands were left unused, and kingdoms had to rely more on hired soldiers. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire could maintain a large army and workforce because of the constant inflow of slaves who became integrated into society Travel Bulgaria.

The Turkish Policy

The Ottoman policy of capturing and integrating slaves was deliberate. By ensuring a constant supply of servants and soldiers who could become full members of society, the empire remained strong even after heavy losses in war. This system allowed the Ottomans to expand and defend their territories while keeping their population stable, unlike some European countries that suffered from declining numbers due to social and religious divisions.

The Slave Trade in Constantinople

It was common to see ships, called Sayres or Turkish vessels, passing through the Bosphorus, carrying Christian captives of all ages and both sexes. These ships often flew a flag on the main mast, either as a sign of victory or to indicate the type of cargo they carried. The exact number of slaves brought to Constantinople each year is not certain. It varied depending on wars and the success of the Tartars. However, customs records show that at least 2,000 slaves were imported each year. Most of these were women and children.

Conversion to Islam

Many of the Christian women and children easily adopted Islam. They were persuaded through kind words, promises of reward, or fear, and eventually became part of Turkish society. The men, often from Russia or Muscovy, were less devoted to their faith and generally less consistent in religion. Facing despair, threats, and the impossibility of returning home, many men gave up Christianity entirely. This process of forced or encouraged conversion contributed significantly to the population and culture of the Ottoman Empire Travel Bulgaria.

Family Life Among the Turks

Among Turks, family life was influenced by religious law and customs. Despite having the right to multiple wives, men were often less fertile than those who focused on one wife. In earlier times, some men were reported to have had very large families, sometimes fathering more than a hundred children. But over time, certain unhealthy practices, reportedly learned from Italians, reduced fertility. Wealthy men, who had the time and resources to indulge in these habits, were particularly affected.

The Role of Slaves in Society

Due to these practices and the neglect of natural family life, population growth among native Turks was slower than expected. Slaves played a critical role in maintaining the population, especially in households and the broader empire. They helped sustain the empire’s population and ensured the continuation of society, despite declining natural fertility among some segments of the population.

The Role of Gifts and Gratuities

In the Ottoman Empire, gifts and gratuities were a common and necessary part of diplomacy. Ambassadors often needed to give presents to maintain the support and goodwill of powerful officials. Even a previously loyal contact could become less helpful over time, and then the ambassador would need to renew their friendship with new gifts and additional promises.

While this system might seem excessive, it was widely accepted and expected at the Ottoman court. Almost nothing could be achieved without it. However, the skill of a successful minister or ambassador lay not only in giving gifts but in using them wisely. Presents had to be distributed with honor, decorum, and strategic advantage Balkan Tours.

Knowing the Power Structure

The Ottoman court had a small number of key officials who controlled most decisions and influence. Typically, two or three individuals held the greatest sway over policy and administration. Ambassadors had to treat these people with great respect and often provide gifts to secure their goodwill. By doing so, diplomats could protect their country’s privileges, ensure agreements were honored, and gain influence in negotiations.

Money alone was not enough. While it could buy temporary favors, the most effective and lasting diplomacy relied on a combination of resources, tact, and personal relationships. A clever minister used gifts to support friendship and correspondence, rather than depending solely on wealth.

Balancing Money and Diplomacy

A wise ambassador knew how to balance generosity with strategy. Giving too many gifts without consideration could seem wasteful or desperate, while relying only on money could fail to build genuine influence. By combining financial resources with careful personal diplomacy, ministers could secure favors, maintain privileges, and negotiate successfully at the Ottoman court.

Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire required more than courage or knowledge of protocol. Ambassadors needed to understand the importance of gifts, the court’s power structure, and the subtleties of personal relationships. When used strategically, presents and gratuities became a tool to ensure respect, maintain influence, and achieve favorable outcomes for their country. Skillful use of both money and personal diplomacy was essential for success in this challenging and complex political environment.

The Importance of Skilled Interpreters

One of the biggest challenges for ambassadors in the Ottoman Empire was that most interpreters were born subjects of the Sultan. They often lacked independence and could not support an ambassador if there was even a small misunderstanding. Sometimes, they failed to distinguish between the meaning intended by the ambassador and the literal words they were translating. This could lead to serious problems, including loss of honor or danger to the ambassador.

To avoid such risks, it would be very useful to train young Englishmen with lively and intelligent minds to serve as interpreters. These interpreters would understand their master’s intentions and communicate boldly and clearly, without the cautious submission or hesitation of ordinary interpreters. Such trained interpreters would protect the ambassador, maintain the dignity of their sovereign, and improve the effectiveness of negotiations Balkan Tours.

Friendship with the Turks

Another important principle for ambassadors is not to seek personal friendship with the Turks too eagerly. Ambassadors should behave fairly, politely, and moderately toward all officials. Attempts to create personal friendships are often costly and unreliable. The Turks were not naturally capable of genuine friendship toward Christians. Anyone considered a “friend” only because of their temporary power was of little real advantage.

In emergencies or times of need, such friendships often proved worthless. Ambassadors who depended on personal connections risked disappointment or harm. Instead, a moderate and respectful conduct ensured safety and stability without unnecessary expense.

The Best Approach

The safest and most effective approach for an ambassador is to follow these guidelines:

Choose skilled and independent interpreters who understand the intentions of the ambassador.

Follow customs and previous examples carefully, avoiding unnecessary concessions.

Maintain polite and moderate behavior toward all officials, without seeking personal friendships.

Act boldly and wisely in negotiations, using tact and courage to protect both personal honor and national interests.

Ambassadors in the Ottoman Empire needed careful preparation, prudence, and skill. The combination of competent interpreters, strict adherence to customs, and cautious yet firm behavior allowed them to negotiate safely and successfully in a challenging and often unpredictable environment. Respectful conduct and careful strategy were more important than trying to win favor or personal friendship.

The Importance of Careful Conduct

An ambassador in the Ottoman Empire had to be extremely circumspect and careful. Even a small insult or loss of honor could damage his reputation permanently. Once his reputation was harmed, he could be scorned, lose influence, and have his authority and credibility diminished. Turks, according to historical observations, were quick to push further against anyone who showed weakness, trampling on those they perceived as beneath them.

Maintaining Respect and Authority

It was essential for ambassadors to maintain a strong reputation with the Ottoman officials. Those who earned respect and recognition could negotiate the most favorable treaties and agreements, sometimes surpassing what weaker states might achieve. Historical diplomat Busbequius observed that the Turks could be either extremely generous to their friends or exceedingly harsh when angered, showing the importance of navigating diplomacy with skill and caution Balkan Tours.

How to Respond to Insults

Responding to Turkish pride and ignorance with direct anger or pride could worsen the situation. Treating insults with fear, submission, or cold indifference was also dangerous, as it could encourage further disrespect. Instead, a successful ambassador needed to combine solid reasoning with tact. Arguments should be presented with clarity, courage, and cheerful expression. Diplomats had to be firm and confident while appearing polite and composed, showing both intelligence and authority without provoking unnecessary anger.

The Balance of Diplomacy

This careful balance between firmness and courtesy was the key to maintaining influence at the Ottoman court. An ambassador who could negotiate boldly yet respectfully, who addressed matters with courage and lively discourse, could gain significant advantages for his country. Maintaining dignity, projecting wisdom, and managing interpersonal relations carefully were more powerful than force or threats in these delicate negotiations.

Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire required skill, courage, and careful self-control. Reputation was everything, and even minor affronts could lead to serious consequences. Successful ambassadors combined respect, clever reasoning, and confident presentation to protect their honor while achieving their country’s interests. The ability to navigate insults, maintain authority, and negotiate effectively was essential to thriving in one of the most complex and politically charged courts of the early modern world.

The Morning After the Wedding

Early in the morning, the bridegroom was called by his friends to go to the bath. This was part of the wedding custom. When he rose from the bridal chamber, the Sultana presented him with fine linen garments to use for bathing. These clothes were a sign of honor and generosity from the bride.

After these ceremonies were completed, the husband and wife became more familiar with one another. However, even though they were now married, the Sultana continued to behave with dignity and distance in public. She did not treat her husband as an equal before others.

The Superiority of the Sultana

In public, the Sultana kept a clear distance between herself and her husband. She often wore her dagger at her side as a symbol of her royal authority and superiority. This showed that she remained a princess of the Ottoman dynasty and that her noble birth placed her above her husband in rank Customized Round Turkey Tours.

She also frequently requested expensive gifts, jewels, and money from him. As a result, many of these Pashas gradually lost much of their wealth. What seemed at first to be a great honor—marrying into the royal family—often became a heavy financial and emotional burden.

Marriage and Political Danger

The difficulties did not end with financial demands. These royal sons-in-law were often placed in dangerous military positions. They were sent on difficult campaigns or risky missions. In this way, they faced constant danger.

One example was Ismail Pasha, who was killed while crossing the River Raab during a defeat of the Ottoman army by imperial forces under the command of Raimondo Montecuccoli. Such events were not rare. Other royal sons-in-law also lost their lives in similar circumstances.

These assignments were not always accidental. The Ottoman government did not want these men to become too proud because of their marriage into the ruling family. Without hardships and risks, they might begin to imagine themselves equal to the Sultan or dream of greater power.

A System of Control

Through these customs, the Ottoman state carefully controlled even its closest relatives. Marriage to a Sultana brought honor, but it also brought strict limits, heavy expenses, and serious dangers. The system ensured that no man, even one connected to the royal family, could grow too powerful or ambitious.

In this way, the authority of the Sultan remained supreme. Honor was given, but independence was reduced. Prestige was offered, but freedom was limited. This balance helped protect the stability of the empire and prevented rival claims to power.

Limiting the Power of Great Men

In the Ottoman Empire, the rulers were very careful to prevent powerful men from becoming too strong. This policy did not apply only to Pashas and high officials. It also applied to members of the Ottoman ruling family itself. The government wanted to make sure that no one could grow so rich or powerful that he might try to claim the supreme throne.

The Ottoman political system was based on strict and original laws. These laws were designed to protect the absolute authority of the Sultan. Even close relatives of the royal family were not free from these rules. In fact, they were sometimes treated with even greater strictness than ordinary officials.

Restrictions on the Children of Princesses

According to Ottoman law, the children of a Sultana (a princess of the Ottoman family) who married a Pasha were not allowed to hold high office in the empire. Even though their mother belonged to the ruling house, they could not rise to important positions in government or the army. The highest position they could usually reach was that of a Capugibashi, which means the chief of the palace gatekeepers. This was an honorable post, but it was not a position of political power Customized Private Turkey Tours.

These descendants were not allowed to boast about their royal blood. Speaking proudly about their family connection to the Sultan was considered disrespectful and almost equal to treason. For this reason, they lived quietly and avoided drawing attention to themselves.

The Example of the Ibrahim Hanogulları

There was, however, one family known for descending from the Ottoman line. They were called the Ibrahim Hanogulları, meaning the sons or descendants of Sultan Ibrahim. Sultan Ibrahim ruled in the seventeenth century. This family was said to be connected to him through the female line, as their father was the son of a sister of the Sultan and had married a princess. Some also believed they had Tatar ancestry.

Because their descent came through the women of the dynasty, less attention was given to their bloodline. They were allowed to live with a large annual income, said to be about 70,000 dollars. Despite their wealth, they behaved with wisdom and modesty. They lived honorably but without showing pride or luxury.

Survival Through Modesty

The Ibrahim Hanogulları avoided government office and did not interfere in state affairs. They understood that seeking power could bring danger, envy, and suspicion. In the Ottoman system, political life was often uncertain and risky. Many powerful men lost their positions or even their lives during changes in government.

By living quietly and avoiding ambition, this family protected itself. Their example shows how careful members of the Ottoman elite had to be. Even royal blood did not guarantee safety. True security came from loyalty, modesty, and staying away from political competition.

In this way, the Ottoman Empire preserved the supreme authority of the Sultan and prevented the rise of rival branches within the ruling house.

Preventing the Growth of Old Wealth

One important rule of Ottoman political thought was to prevent the rise of old and powerful noble families. Wealth was seen as the next step toward nobility. If a family could keep its riches for many generations, it might become too strong and independent. To avoid this danger, the Ottoman rulers followed a strict policy.

This idea is similar to a principle described by Niccolò Machiavelli. He wrote that the safest way to stop the pride and power of great men is to take away the sources of their strength. In the Ottoman Empire, this meant preventing officials from building permanent family wealth. The Sultan did not allow powerful governors to create lasting dynasties based on money and property.

Confiscation of Estates

When a Pasha died, the Sultan took control of his property. The Sultan, as supreme ruler, claimed the estates of all high officials. If the Pasha had children, they did not automatically inherit their father’s wealth. Instead, the Sultan decided how much money or property they would receive for their support. This amount was often limited Customized Private Turkey Tours.

In this way, no family could easily pass great riches from one generation to another. Even if a Pasha had served faithfully for many years, his wealth returned to the treasury after his death. This system kept the central authority strong and prevented the rise of rival noble houses.

Marriage into the Royal Family

The situation was similar when a Pasha married a princess of the Ottoman family. If he was married to a Sultana, who might be the Sultan’s sister, daughter, or close relative, special financial rules applied. When such a Pasha died, the dowry (called the kabin) of the princess was first taken from his estate. This dowry was often very large, sometimes reaching 100,000 dollars or more in value.

After the dowry was removed, the remaining wealth went to the Sultan as the main heir. Again, the children did not automatically inherit the full estate. The Sultan controlled the distribution of property.

The Decline of Old Noble Families

Because of these policies, old noble families could not maintain their former greatness. Ancient lines of nobility slowly disappeared. In Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), the daughters of once-great Greek families sometimes married simple men such as shepherds or carters. Families like the House of Kantakouzenos and the Palaiologos dynasty, who had once ruled or held high rank in the Byzantine Empire, lived in modest and sometimes poor conditions.

This system shows clearly that in the Ottoman Empire, power and wealth depended on the Sultan alone. No family could become permanently strong without his approval. By controlling property and inheritance, the Sultan protected his authority and prevented the growth of independent aristocracy.

The Position of Pashas in the Ottoman System

In the Ottoman system, Pashas were powerful governors and military leaders. However, their power did not come from noble birth or personal virtue. It came directly from the favor of the Sultan. A man became a Pasha because the Sultan trusted him, not because he belonged to a noble family. For this reason, a Pasha who lost the Sultan’s protection also lost his importance and honor. Once imprisoned, he was treated like an ordinary soldier. He was not exchanged with high-ranking Christian commanders or noble prisoners. Without the Sultan’s support, he was no longer seen as a great man.

This shows an important rule of Ottoman politics: position and authority depended entirely on the ruler’s will. Noble blood did not protect a man. Personal success and high office could disappear in a moment if the Sultan withdrew his favor Customized Private Turkey Tours.

Hereditary Governors in Certain Regions

Although most Pashas held office only by the Sultan’s pleasure, there were a few exceptions. In some smaller and distant regions, certain Pashas were allowed to pass their position from father to son. This special privilege came from an old grant given by the Sultan. Such hereditary rule was rare and carefully limited.

Among the places where this happened were Gaza, parts of Kurdistan, and some districts once connected to Damascus and Aleppo. In these areas, local rulers sometimes kept power within their families for generations. However, even this privilege depended on the central government’s acceptance.

The Pasha of Gaza A Man of Tolerance

One Pasha of Gaza was remembered with great respect. He was known for his kindness toward Christians, especially the monks of Jerusalem. He often sent them gifts, such as rice and other supplies for their monastery. His actions showed a spirit of tolerance and goodwill.

When the Father Guardian of the Holy Sepulchre visited him, the Pasha welcomed him warmly. He went out to meet him at some distance from his house, showing unusual respect. This behavior was different from what Ottoman officials usually showed toward non-Muslims. Because of his good character and peaceful life, he was admired by many people.

A Sad and Sudden End

This Pasha governed Gaza for seventy-five years and had inherited his position from his father. He lived a long life without rebellion or crime. However, despite his loyalty and peaceful rule, he was called to the imperial capital with promises of fair treatment.

When he arrived, he was executed without trial or public accusation. His long service and old age did not protect him. The reason was political. The central government feared that allowing such long hereditary rule might weaken Ottoman authority. It was seen as a dangerous exception to normal policy.

His death shows again how uncertain power was in the Ottoman Empire. No matter how loyal or honorable a governor might be, his life and position always depended on the Sultan’s will.

Converts Who Became Zealous Turks

Many of those who converted to Islam did not remain half-hearted believers. Over time, they became fully part of Turkish society. Through habit, education, and personal ambition, some truly believed in their new religion. Others, even if they once doubted, grew attached to their new identity.

In many cases, these converts became stronger enemies of Christianity than the Turks by birth. They tried to prove their loyalty and devotion. History shows that several famous Ottoman commanders at sea were originally Christians who had converted. One example is Cığalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha, who had been born into a Christian family but later rose to high rank in the Ottoman navy. Such men often fought fiercely against the lands and faith of their childhood Istanbul Old City Tours.

Their success in battle, especially at sea, helped strengthen the empire. At the same time, their actions showed how completely they had adopted their new cause.

The Taking of Christian Children

In earlier centuries, the Ottomans followed a strict system known as the devshirme. Every few years, Christian boys were taken from their families in conquered territories. These children were educated in Islam and trained for service in the army or government.

Through this policy, the empire increased its own population while weakening the Christian communities. The strongest and most talented boys were removed from their homes and raised as loyal servants of the Sultan.

In later times, this custom became less common. There were already many Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and others living under Ottoman rule. Many of them chose to convert voluntarily, hoping to gain social advantages and avoid heavy discrimination.

Pressure and Poverty

It is not surprising that some Christians abandoned their faith. They often lived under oppression and contempt. Heavy taxes and limited rights made life difficult. In addition, poverty among the clergy sometimes led to poor education in the churches. Without strong teaching and support, some believers became discouraged.

Faced with hardship, a few chose to convert in order to improve their condition. They hoped for better treatment and greater opportunity.

The Survival of the Church

Yet despite this pressure, many Christians remained faithful. It is remarkable that, under such difficult circumstances, Christian communities continued to exist. Their survival seemed to fulfill the words of Jesus Christ, who said that the gates of hell would not prevail against his Church.

Even in times of persecution and loss, faith endured. Though many were taken, converted, or discouraged, others remained firm. Their perseverance stands as a testimony to the strength of belief under trial.

Suspicion Is Enough for Destruction

In the Ottoman Empire, if a powerful man was suspected of planning rebellion or causing unrest, suspicion alone could lead to his death. It did not matter whether there was clear proof. If the Sultan believed that a governor’s wealth, influence, or natural ability made him dangerous, that was enough.

The Sultan would not openly show anger at first. Instead, he would hide his displeasure. The official might even receive signs of favor. A fine horse, a sword, or a rich fur robe might be sent as a gift. Polite words and friendly messages would be given. Everything would appear peaceful and honorable.

But this kindness was often only a disguise. At the right moment, the executioner would arrive with the bowstring, the usual instrument of execution for high officers. Once the cord was placed around the man’s neck, there was no mercy. The respect shown earlier would disappear, and the end would be swift and harsh Guided Round Tours Turkey.

This policy has been compared to a story told by the ancient writer Plutarch. He wrote that birds sometimes attack a cuckoo because they fear it may one day grow into a hawk. In the same way, the Sultan destroyed men who might later become powerful threats.

Removal Without Warning

To make space for new officers who were waiting for promotion, and to carry out executions quietly, the Sultan often used another method. A great official might be removed from his current position and given what seemed to be an even higher office in a distant province.

He would leave the capital with honor. His departure would be filled with ceremony and signs of royal favor. Surrounded by servants and filled with hope, he would travel proudly toward his new government.

Yet before three days had passed, a secret order might reach him. Without public accusation, without trial, and without clear reason other than the Sultan’s will, he would be executed. His body would often be buried quickly in a foreign land. No grand funeral, no monument, and no lasting memory would remain.

Fear as a Tool of Rule

This system created deep fear among high officials. No man, however honored, felt secure. Power depended entirely on the Sultan’s pleasure. Wealth and rank could vanish in a moment.

Such methods are similar to the policy sometimes attributed to Tiberius, who also used suspicion and sudden punishment to control powerful men. By removing those who seemed dangerous, the ruler strengthened his own position.

In this way, the Ottoman Sultan ruled through caution, secrecy, and fear. Great men rose quickly, but they could fall just as suddenly.

Control Through Oppression

The Ottoman ruler governed many different nations and peoples who had been conquered over time. These groups spoke different languages and followed different customs. To keep them obedient, the Turks often used strong and severe rule. Heavy taxation, strict laws, and harsh punishment were common tools of control.

The ordinary people, especially those who were not Turks, felt the weight of this oppression the most. They carried their burdens like animals under heavy loads. Poverty and fear kept them quiet. They had little power to resist Guided Round Tours Turkey.

However, those who were Turks and held office in the empire did not suffer in the same way. Officials and soldiers enjoyed freedom and privilege. They were often allowed to act boldly and even harshly toward others. Their position gave them confidence and pride. Since few dared to challenge them, they lived with a sense of power and superiority.

The Fate of Corrupt Governors

The end of these powerful men is very remarkable. Many governors, especially the Pashas, worked hard to gather wealth during their time in office. They taxed heavily, seized property, and enriched themselves quickly. Yet, their success often did not last long.

It was common for the Sultan to remove them suddenly. In many cases, he ordered their execution. In other cases, he stripped them of their riches and took their wealth into the royal treasury. The money they had gathered was declared to be wrongly gained.

Among all these governors, those who ruled in Cairo often suffered the hardest fate. Cairo was one of the richest and most important provinces in the empire. Because of this, its governor had many chances to become wealthy. But this also made him a target. Either on his journey back to the capital or soon after his return, he might lose his life by order of the Sultan. If he survived, he was often robbed of most of his property.

Wealth Gathered for the Sultan

It is strange to see how eagerly these men continued to gather riches, even though they knew from many examples that their wealth might soon be taken away. Experience showed them that they were often collecting treasure not for themselves, but for their master.

In the end, they kept only the hatred and curses of the people they had oppressed. The wealth passed to the Sultan, while the blame remained with them.

A Policy of Fear and Control

This system resembles the policy once used by Cesare Borgia, also known as the Duke of Valentinois. He allowed his ministers to act harshly and cruelly, and when the people grew angry, he punished those ministers publicly. In this way, he appeared just, while others bore the blame.

Similarly, the Ottoman Sultan allowed governors to enrich themselves for a time. But when it suited him, he punished them and took their wealth. Through this method, he strengthened his own power and reminded all officials that their fortune depended entirely on his will.

Offices Given for Merit in Earlier Times

In earlier times of the Ottoman Empire, especially during its strongest and most successful periods, offices were often given as rewards for merit and good service. When the empire was growing and winning wars, rulers looked carefully at the virtue, courage, and skill of their servants. Men who showed loyalty and bravery were honored openly.

Positions were given freely, without demanding large sums of money in return. Rewards were seen as gifts of royal favor, not as goods to be bought and sold. This practice allowed talented men to rise by their abilities. Their honor was not stained by payments or secret agreements. Their success reflected their worth.

During those years, the empire expanded and flourished. Strong leadership and fair reward encouraged courage and faithful service Guided Round Tours Turkey.

Change and Signs of Decline

In later times, however, this system changed. Offices were often sold for money, and merit was no longer the main reason for promotion. Wealth began to matter more than ability. This change caused many observers to believe that the empire was declining.

When good customs are replaced by corruption, it can be a sign that a state is weakening. As the Roman historian Livy once suggested, success follows when the gods favor a nation, but misfortune comes when they turn away. In the same way, the change from merit to money seemed to show a loss of strength and virtue within the Ottoman government.

Heavy Taxes and the Spirit of the People

Although this corrupt system harmed justice, it did serve one important purpose for the rulers. Governors and high officers, who had paid large sums for their positions, often placed heavy taxes on the people to recover their losses. They also seized property and demanded payments whenever possible.

As a result, the common people became poor and discouraged. Constant taxation reduced their courage. When people struggle simply to survive, they have little strength left to think about rebellion.

The English writer Francis Bacon, sometimes called Lord Verulam, wrote in his essays that a people weighed down by heavy taxes cannot become brave or warlike. A nation burdened with poverty cannot act like a lion’s cub. Strength and courage require freedom and confidence.

Control Through Poverty

In this way, heavy taxation helped keep the population quiet. Poor and tired people are less likely to rise against authority. Even when they suffer injustice, they may endure it silently.

Thus, while corruption and high taxes may weaken an empire in the long run, they can also serve as tools of control. The rulers maintained order, but at the cost of fairness, prosperity, and the spirit of the people.

The Difficult Condition of Wallachia

The state and condition of the province of Wallachia has been no better, and in many ways worse, than that of Moldavia. Like Moldavia, Wallachia eventually came under the full control and possession of the Ottoman Empire. However, this did not happen all at once. At first, the country became tributary to the Turks while still being ruled by its own native princes.

Wallachia first agreed to pay tribute during the time of Sultan Bayezid. Although the country kept its own rulers, it recognized the authority of the Ottoman Sultan and paid regular taxes as a sign of submission Private Tours Balkan.

The Conquest Under Mehmed the Great

In the year 1462, Sultan Mehmed the Great attempted the complete conquest of Wallachia. At that time, the country was governed by its Voivode, Wladus (often identified with Vlad). During this period, internal division weakened the province. Wladus had a younger brother who, with the support of the Tatars and a political faction within Wallachia, claimed the principality for himself.

This younger brother was willing to accept the position of vassal to the Ottoman Empire. By accepting Ottoman authority, he secured his rule, but at the cost of the country’s independence. Such internal rivalries made it easier for the Ottomans to extend their influence.

War and Resistance in 1595

Later, in the year 1595, Michael the Voivode of Wallachia attempted to resist Ottoman control. He formed alliances with Sigismund of Transylvania and with the Voivode of Moldavia. Together, they fought a long and fierce war against the Ottoman Empire.

For a time, this alliance brought hope of freedom. However, the struggle was exhausting and filled with constant unrest. Political revolutions, internal disputes, and rival factions weakened the resistance. Instead of uniting strongly against a common enemy, divisions continued to damage their cause.

The Loss of Independence

As a result of these internal conflicts and long wars, Wallachia gradually lost its remaining independence. It became fully subject to the Ottoman Empire and was treated as an additional province under its power.

The Ottoman authorities placed a heavy yoke upon the land. Strict control, high tribute, and strong political supervision limited the freedom of the people. The author of the original text suggests that this misfortune was not only political but also a form of divine justice. According to this view, the suffering of these Christian provinces came partly from their own negligence, division, and lack of unity.

While they were divided by quarrels and internal disputes, their powerful enemy waited patiently for the right moment to act. When weakness appeared, the Ottoman Empire moved in and secured control. Thus, Wallachia’s condition became a warning of how internal conflict can open the door to foreign domination.