Annual Reports from Inspectors and Labour Committees

Factory inspectors and labour committees must send yearly reports of their work to the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. The Ministry then publishes these reports, which include a large amount of information about factory conditions, employment, and workers’ safety. Over time, these reports will help the government understand what further steps are needed to improve labour laws and protect workers’ rights.

The Beginning of Labour Legislation

As mentioned before, the law concerning the employment of women and children is only the first step in a broader plan for labour reform. At present, the employment of adult workers is not heavily regulated. However, the need for general labour laws that protect all workers is becoming more and more obvious. The government expects that such legislation will soon be necessary as the economy continues to grow Daily Sofia Tour.

The 1905 Law Encouraging Commerce and Industry

The Law Encouraging Bulgarian Commerce and Industry, passed in 1905, also contributed to the protection of workers. This law requires employers who receive certain government benefits or privileges to create an insurance fund for the employees in their businesses. Workers also contribute to this fund through small deductions from their wages. The detailed rules about how this insurance system will work are being written in special regulations that are still under preparation.

Bill on Agricultural Labourers

In 1904, the Ministry presented a bill about agricultural labourers, but it has not yet been approved by the National Assembly. The bill aims to clearly define the rights and duties of landowners and farm workers. It allows both sides to make their own agreements but also seeks to ensure that there are enough farm workers available. Moreover, it tries to protect these workers from being unfairly treated or exploited by some landowners.

Labour Laws and Economic Development

This short overview shows that Bulgaria’s labour legislation is gradually adapting to new economic conditions. The system is not yet complete because the country’s industries are still developing. Most local industries are too young to handle all the financial costs that strong labour protection laws might bring. For now, they still need support and encouragement from the state.

However, it is equally important to recognize that protecting workers must remain a priority. Labour is the foundation of national progress, and social problems can only be prevented by reasonable and timely actions. With thoughtful planning, the country can balance industrial growth with fair treatment and safety for its workers.

Guiding Principles of Economic Policy

The main goal of any sound economic policy is to direct a nation’s productive forces toward useful and well-organized work. This progress, however, cannot be achieved all at once. It must happen gradually, taking into account the local conditions and needs of the country at each stage of development.

These same principles guide the Bulgarian Government in shaping its future labour and industrial legislation. The government aims to create conditions where national industries can grow steadily and workers can find stable, productive employment.

Industrial Legislation in Bulgaria

Bulgaria’s Agricultural Foundation

Bulgaria has long been an agricultural country, with its main exports consisting of cereals and livestock. In contrast, most of the country’s imports are manufactured goods, either because they are not produced locally or because local production is too small to meet demand.

Despite this, the global trend among modern nations is to develop domestic industries that can produce essential goods for home use. These industries not only reduce dependence on foreign imports but also create diverse job opportunities for citizens. Bulgaria is following this same path Daily Sofia Tour.

The Effort to Build National Industry

Bulgarian leaders have long understood that the country’s future prosperity depends on having strong national industries alongside agriculture. To achieve this, the Legislative Assembly and the Government have worked together to encourage and protect local manufacturing.

The first step was to support industries that could take root and grow successfully. To attract investment and private capital, the government offered special benefits and privileges to entrepreneurs who were willing to start or expand local industries. These included tax advantages and other financial incentives designed to ensure fair profit for investors.

Laws Encouraging Local Industry

The Law for the Encouragement of Local Industry, passed on December 20, 1894, and its supplementary law of 1896, were the first major steps toward this goal. Later, on January 25, 1905, a new and broader law titled “Law for the Encouragement of Bulgarian Commerce and Industry” replaced the earlier ones. It officially came into force on March 26, 1905.

This 1905 law strengthened the same principles of protection and promotion introduced in 1894. It aimed to expand Bulgaria’s industrial base, support entrepreneurs, and balance agriculture with manufacturing.

A Step Toward Economic Independence

Alongside industrial development, Bulgaria also began preparing a new customs tariff policy. This policy became the foundation for negotiations with European countries to form new trade agreements. The ultimate goal was to make Bulgaria economically independent, capable of supporting both its agriculture and industry without relying heavily on foreign imports.

Right to Weekly Rest

Women of all ages and children under fifteen have the right to one full day of rest each week. In most cases, this rest day is Sunday. According to Bulgarian law, all industrial workplaces must close on that day. This rule helps protect the health and well-being of women and children who work in factories or workshops.

The 1905 Law on Factory Conditions

The law passed in 1905 includes important rules about health and safety in factories. It aims to make working conditions better for all employees. However, the law does not clearly explain how workers should be insured against accidents that happen during work.

Article 24 of the same law states that the fines collected from factory owners who break the law should be used to create a special fund. This fund will later help support insurance for workers in cases of accidents or old age. A separate law will be needed to set up this insurance system officially Daily Sofia Tour.

Supervision and Labour Inspection

The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture is responsible for making sure that the laws protecting women and children are properly followed. To help with this task, a special Labour Inspection Department is being created.

At the moment, the Ministry supervises working conditions through labour committees in different towns. Each committee has five members: the town’s mayor, the local doctor, the district school inspector, the district engineer, and a representative of the local trade unions. These committees have the same authority as factory inspectors. They can either work together or assign one or more members to investigate a specific case.

Penalties for Breaking the Law

Factory inspectors are allowed to record all violations of labour laws. Their reports are accepted as official evidence in court. Employers who break the rules can be fined between 15 and 50 francs. For more serious violations, the fine can reach up to 500 francs, but it cannot exceed that amount.

Any breach of the laws that protect the health and safety of workers is punished more strictly, with fines ranging from 50 to 500 francs. These penalties encourage factory owners to follow the rules and maintain safe and fair working conditions.

Regulations on Home and Industrial Employment

Home Work vs. Industrial Work

The 1905 Labour Law did not directly apply to simple home-based work, such as family weaving, tailoring, or other small domestic crafts. However, when such home employment expanded into a larger industrial enterprise, the law came into effect.

If more than five women or children were employed—not counting family members—the enterprise was legally considered an industrial establishment, and all the rules of Article 2 and the entire labour law applied in full.

The law therefore made a clear distinction between family labour, which was more personal and domestic, and industrial labour, where non-family workers were employed and wages were paid. This was important to ensure that the protection offered by the law covered all workplaces where child or women’s labour could be abused Daily Sofia Tour.

Protection from Dangerous Work

The law also included health protections. It specifically stated that no worker under the age of eighteen, whether male or female, could be employed in factories or workshops where the work was dangerous or harmful to health. These included industries that used chemicals, excessive heat, or toxic substances.

This rule was made to protect the physical well-being of young people, whose bodies were still developing, and to prevent long-term harm caused by unsafe working conditions.

Working Hours and Rest Periods

The law introduced clear limits on working hours:

Children up to the age of fifteen could not work more than eight hours per day.

Women of all ages were limited to a maximum of ten hours per day.

To protect workers from exhaustion, the law also required that women and children must be given a rest period after five continuous hours of work. This break was meant to reduce fatigue and protect health, especially for those working in factories with long shifts or physically demanding labour.

Night Work Restrictions

One of the most progressive parts of the 1905 law was its ban on night work. It stated that:

Women of all ages were absolutely forbidden to work at night.

Children under fifteen were also not allowed to work during the night.

However, this particular rule was to come into full effect only five years after the publication of the law, to give employers time to adapt.

Limited Exceptions

There were a few exceptions to the night work rule. For example, boys aged thirteen and above could work at night only during periods of exceptional demand, such as harvest or urgent production times. Even then, these cases were strictly limited and required supervision.

In factories that operated continuously, day and night, children could be employed up to eleven o’clock at night, but they had to be given at least eight hours of rest before starting work again the next day.

Through these detailed rules, the 1905 Bulgarian Labour Law sought to protect women and children from overwork, exploitation, and unsafe conditions. It represented an important step toward modern social legislation in Bulgaria.

By distinguishing between family and industrial work, limiting daily hours, banning night shifts, and protecting young workers from dangerous environments, the law reflected Bulgaria’s growing commitment to social justice, public health, and humane industrial progress.

Bulgarian Economic and Infrastructure

Bulgarian Economic and Infrastructure Development

The Role of the Commercial and Industrial Museum

The Bulgarian Commercial and Industrial Museum was established in June 1898. It is closely linked to the government, as it is attached to the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. This museum acts as more than just a place to see old items; it has a clear and active program to support local businesses and farmers.

The museum helps small traders by giving out loans, which allows them to get the necessary money to grow their companies. It also directly helps local industry by buying specific products, such as traditional tapestries, hats, and knives. By purchasing these items, the museum helps keep traditional Bulgarian crafts alive and profitable, ensuring that artisans can continue their work.

To support the farming community, the museum sells essential equipment. It offers machines and other farm implements at the lowest possible prices. This action makes it easier for farmers to buy the tools they need to improve their efficiency and grow better crops. The museum’s leader is an official from the Ministry, which ensures that its support efforts are well-coordinated with the national government’s trade and agricultural policies Sofia City Tour.

The Creation of a Dedicated Ministry for Infrastructure

Before 1894, all of Bulgaria’s public projects, including the management of the railways, were overseen by the Board of Public Works. This board was actually part of the Ministry of Finance. This setup meant that infrastructure was managed mostly through a financial lens.

However, in 1894, the government created a new, specialized office: the Ministry of Public Works, Roads, and Communications. This move signaled that managing roads, trains, and other communications was important enough to require its own dedicated government body.

Within this new Ministry, a separate department for railways was first established in 1901. This department was later reorganized in 1905 to become the General Board of State Railways and Ports. This change highlighted the government’s focus on developing modern, efficient transportation systems—both by land and by sea—to support the country’s growth.

How the Railway System Is Organized

The General Board of State Railways and Ports has a carefully planned central structure to manage the entire national system. The key officials who run the operation include a General Director (the main leader), an Assistant Director, an Engineer-in-Chief, and a Secretary.

Under the leadership team, the administration is divided into specialized departments. One major department is Traffic and Commerce. This group is vital for the business side of the railways and is divided into six important sections:

Tariffs: Setting the prices for carrying passengers and shipping goods.

Receipts Control: Checking the money coming in from tickets, luggage, and freight shipping.

Claims: Dealing with customer complaints about lost property or service issues.

Statistics: Collecting performance data to ensure the railway is working well.

Another crucial area is the department that handles Maintenance, Rolling-Stock, and Traction. This technical group ensures that all the trains are running and the tracks are safe. It includes sections for technical and financial planning, handling all accounts, and managing the inventories of all tools and supplies. This detailed organization helps keep Bulgaria’s railway system operating safely and efficiently.

Governance and Economic Support

Bulgaria’s Local Governance and Economic Support

How Departmental Councils Are Funded and Organized

The regional governing bodies in Bulgaria are known as Departmental Councils. The money these councils use to operate mainly comes from a small extra tax that is added to the main State taxes. This allows them to have their own budget to work on local projects and improvements.

The members of the Departmental Councils are chosen through elections based on universal suffrage, meaning every eligible citizen gets to vote. In each department, three delegates (representatives) are elected for every 20,000 residents, including people of both sexes. These elected officials serve for a term of three years.

Each Council creates a small, dedicated team, often referred to as the Permanent Committee. This committee is responsible for the day-to-day operations and ensuring that the Council’s plans are successfully put into action Sofia City Tour.

The Strong Focus on Agriculture

The main task of the Permanent Committee is to focus on improving the agriculture, livestock, and general rural economy within the department. This group does not typically handle matters related to commerce (trade) or industry (manufacturing).

This strong focus on farming is logical and necessary. The members of the Permanent Committee are often farmers themselves, which means they are the people who have the most direct contact with the agricultural population. They deeply understand the needs of people working the land and can quickly address local problems.

In contrast, large-scale commerce and industry are usually looked after by the national government’s Ministry and by the Chambers of Commerce. This division of labor ensures that farming gets the specialized attention it needs at the local level, while other sectors receive support from national and industry-specific bodies.

Practical Support for Farmers and Technical Training

The Departmental Councils provide excellent, hands-on support for their agricultural communities. They regularly give out high-quality seeds to help farmers grow better crops. They also invest significant resources into improving the breeding of cattle and other livestock.

To motivate farmers to adopt new and better practices, the Councils organize competitive events. These competitions cover topics like poultry-rearing and fruit-growing. Furthermore, they offer scholarships to allow young people who want to become farmers to study modern methods at technical schools in foreign countries, bringing new knowledge back to Bulgaria.

The Permanent Committees also maintain and pay for local technical schools. For example, the Departmental Council of Sofia has supported three model schools, a specialized workshop in Trun for making traditional Oriental carpets, and two carpentry shops in Koprivshtitsa and Etropole. These special courses combine classroom lessons with hands-on training and have been very successful in updating and improving long-established Bulgarian trades.

The Role of Local Parish Councils

The scope of the smaller Parish Councils (local town or village councils) concerning commerce and industry is similar to the Departmental Councils, but on a much reduced scale. They focus on local economic issues within their immediate parish area. When a Parish Council does not have enough funds to complete important local work, the larger Departmental Council provides subsidies (financial aid) to help those communities.

Labour Legislation

The Beginning of Economic Change

During a relatively short period of social and political freedom, Bulgaria experienced major economic transformations. Before political independence, most of the population lived in rural areas and worked in small trades or handicrafts, using simple, traditional tools. Production was slow, and most goods were made by hand.

After emancipation, however, industrial growth began to change Bulgarian society. The progress of the world’s economy also influenced the country, as modern production methods and new forms of labour organization started to appear. The old system of small, family-based trades gradually disappeared, replaced by factories, machines, and wage labour Private Sofia Tours.

The Rise of Machinery and Its Consequences

With the arrival of machinery and capitalist production, many small craftsmen could no longer compete. Factories could produce faster and at lower cost, forcing traditional handworkers out of business.

This change, while boosting industrial progress, had serious social consequences. Machines reduced the need for skilled manual work, and the individual worker became just a small part of a large production system. To remain competitive, factory owners tried to increase productivity, which often meant:

Longer working hours,

Lower wages, and

Employment of women and children in difficult conditions.

These problems were not unique to Bulgaria; they had already appeared in Western Europe, in countries like Britain, France, and Germany, during the Industrial Revolution. The overworking of labourers, combined with low pay and unsafe conditions, soon drew public attention and sympathy.

The Birth of Labour Laws in Bulgaria

In response to these challenges, Bulgarian lawmakers realized the need to protect workers and regulate working conditions. The first significant step was taken in 1903, when laws were passed that allowed for the organization of trades and trade unions. This gave workers a legal way to come together, discuss their problems, and defend their rights.

Following this, in 1905, the first official labour law was passed. It specifically addressed the employment of women and children in factories. The law set restrictions on working hours, improved safety conditions, and introduced rules for fair treatment.

This legislation was a major milestone for Bulgaria, marking the beginning of labour protection and a shift toward modern social policy.

The Role of Women and Children in Industry

At that time, women and children made up nearly 50–70% of the total factory workforce. Many families depended on their combined earnings to survive. Unfortunately, this also meant that young children and mothers often worked in harsh conditions for very low pay. The 1905 law was therefore an essential step in limiting exploitation and promoting humane working standards.

In summary, Bulgaria’s industrial development brought both progress and hardship. The transition from handcrafts to machine-based industries improved production but created new social inequalities. Early labour legislation aimed to restore balance by protecting workers, particularly women and children, from abuse.

These first laws laid the foundation for future labour rights in Bulgaria and reflected a broader global movement toward social justice and industrial reform.

The Present State of Bulgarian Industry

Although exact statistics on Bulgarian industry at the time were not always available, it was already clear that the country had made significant progress. Each factory or workshop considered here had a minimum capital of 25,000 francs and employed at least 20 workers. From this, we can see that Bulgarian industries were becoming quite important.

Some factories were much larger, employing 200 to 300 workers each. In addition to these, there were countless small enterprises across the country that were not included in the official count. For example, in the Sofia Chamber of Commerce region alone, there were more than 500 workshops, including 108 carpenters’ shops.

Industrial Establishments in 1907

By December 31, 1907, Bulgaria had 166 industrial establishments, distributed among several sectors:

3 Mining industries

8 Metallurgical industries

6 Ceramic factories

15 Chemical industries

57 Food and beverage industries (including breweries and distilleries)

51 Textile factories

8 Furniture-making workshops

13 Leather industries

1 Paper mill

4 Miscellaneous industries

Capital Investment by Industry

The total capital invested in these industries amounted to 30,599,432.79 francs. The breakdown is shown below:

Industry Number of Factories Total Capital (francs) % of Total Average per Factory (francs)

Food & Brewing 56 14,375,543.51 46.98% 256,706.13

Textiles 45 6,603,526.41 21.58% 146,745.03

Ceramics 6 1,926,690.87 6.30% 321,149.61

Chemicals 13 1,338,962.25 4.38% 102,997.10

Mining 3 774,077.52 2.53% 258,025.87

Leather 12 685,180.00 2.14% 54,598.33

Furniture 8 599,616.55 1.92% 73,702.07

Metallurgical 6 331,246.34 1.08% 55,208.00

Paper 1 185,433.00 0.61% 185,433.00

Miscellaneous 4 3,818,946.34 12.46% 954,736.59

Total 154 30,599,432.79 100% —

Dominant Sectors

The food and brewing industry held the first place in terms of capital investment. This included mills, breweries, and distilleries, which were vital for both domestic consumption and export. The textile industry ranked second, reflecting Bulgaria’s long tradition in weaving and cloth production. The ceramics industry came third, showing growth in pottery and brickmaking enterprises Private Sofia Tours.

Employment in Industry

As of January 1, 1905, the total number of people employed in these factories was 7,026, including both owners and workers. Among them, 677 were owners or managers, while the rest were regular employees or laborers. This demonstrates that industry was becoming a growing source of employment and income in Bulgaria.

By the early 20th century, Bulgaria’s industrial base had grown steadily from small local workshops into a network of modern, capitalized enterprises. The rise of industries such as textiles, food processing, and ceramics marked a turning point in the nation’s economic history. Though agriculture still dominated, these early factories laid the foundation for Bulgaria’s transformation into an industrial economy in the years to come.

Industrial Development Before and After Liberation

The growth of Bulgarian industry can best be understood by comparing factories established before and after the country’s political emancipation. The following table provides valuable information about the main types of industries, their capital investment, and the number of workers employed before 1897 and between 1897 and 1900.

Overview of Factory Growth

Industry Factories before 1897 Capital (in 1,000 francs) Workers Factories 1897–1900 Capital (in 1,000 francs) Workers

Leather 3 215 150 4 775 127

Woollens 25 4,609 1,716 1 110 40

Alcohol 6 1,055 67 3 830 71

Beer 12 2,081 288 4 355 60

Soap 4 200 75 1 45 15

Pottery 4 996 210 5 1,760 460

Ironmongery 3 220 70 1 40 4

Shot — — — 1 22 27

Furniture 2 140 30 2 300 75

Carpets 2 120 386 — — —

Cigarette Paper 1 60 45 — — —

Silk 1 100 160 — — —

Cotton — — — 1 1,200 450

Stockings, etc. 1 15 25 — — —

Dyeing 1 10 32 1 10 30

Spirits 6 325 51 — — —

Sugar — — — 1 3,000 300

Matches — — — 1 48 8

Chemicals — — — 1 50 12

Cardboard — — — 1 30 7

Total 71 ≈10,496 3,376 28 ≈8,827 1,678

Growth of Industry in the Late 19th Century

This table shows that industrial development in Bulgaria expanded steadily after emancipation. While many industries such as weaving, leatherwork, alcohol, and pottery already existed before 1897, the later period saw the emergence of new sectors, such as sugar production, cotton weaving, chemicals, and match-making. These newer industries required larger investments and more modern machinery, marking the beginning of mechanized production in Bulgaria Sightseeing Sofia.

The leather and wool industries continued to employ a significant number of people, reflecting the country’s strong agricultural base. The pottery industry also grew remarkably, showing how traditional crafts were adapting to modern production methods.

Investment and Capital Expansion

According to the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, between the country’s liberation and 1901, Bulgaria established about 440 factories and workshops. The total capital invested in these enterprises amounted to 50 million francs, a remarkable achievement for a newly independent nation still transitioning from an agricultural economy.

This expansion demonstrates the determination of Bulgarian entrepreneurs to build a modern industrial base without relying heavily on foreign investment. Much of this capital came from domestic savings and local business efforts, reflecting both the patriotism and resilience of the Bulgarian people.

In summary, Bulgaria’s industrial growth between 1878 and 1901 represents a major transformation. Although many of the early factories were small, their establishment laid the foundation for future industrial progress. With continued investment, education, and modernization, Bulgaria was beginning to move from a primarily agricultural society to one capable of supporting large-scale industry—a vital step toward economic independence and prosperity.

Domestic Sales and Local Consumption

Although Bulgaria exports a fair amount of woven goods and textiles, most of the production is sold within the country. The exports bring in about two to three million francs per year, while domestic sales reach nearly eight million francs. This shows that the internal market plays a very important role in supporting Bulgarian manufacturers.

In earlier times, most people in Bulgaria used to wear coarse, handmade cloths woven at home. However, this tradition has gradually declined. With the growth of modern factories and new fashion trends, many people now prefer to buy ready-made clothes from shops. This change in habits has reduced the importance of home weaving and household industries, which once formed the backbone of the local economy.

Improvements in Quality

One positive change in recent years is the remarkable improvement in the quality of Bulgarian textiles. Manufacturers have worked hard to make their products equal, and in some cases even superior, to foreign goods. Through modern equipment, better materials, and advanced production techniques, Bulgarian cloths and fabrics now compete successfully with imported ones Sightseeing Sofia.

As a result of this improvement, the need for imported goods has gradually declined, showing the strength and progress of the national industry.

Decline in Textile Imports

The following table shows the decline in the import of various textile products over several years (values in francs):

Product 1894 1898 1902

Coarse cloths 27,228 130,617 45,100

Serges 14,404 47,094 100,822

Undyed cloths and fabrics 22,754 13,459 4,372

Dyed goods 1,404,098 1,538,212 1,204,565

Shawls 254,578 224,254 144,034

These numbers show a steady fall in imports, especially of dyed goods and shawls, as the domestic textile industry became more productive and self-sufficient.

Growth of Other Industries

Besides weaving and textile production, many other industries have developed in Bulgaria due to the continuous support of the government. Factories have been established in several fields, including metalwork, food processing, leather goods, and paper manufacturing.

Although this report cannot cover every industry in detail, their progress is clear from the growth of factory numbers and investment capital. A factory is officially recognized when it employs at least twenty workers and has a capital of more than 25,000 francs.

Industrial Census of 1906

For the first time in Bulgaria’s history, a national census of industrial establishments was carried out on December 31, 1906. This census recorded the total number of factories, workers, machinery, and production capacity across the country.

Before analyzing those results, it is useful to look at the condition of Bulgarian industries before that date. This comparison helps us understand how rapidly Bulgaria transformed from an agricultural nation into an emerging industrial country, showing great potential for continued economic growth.

Export of Coarse Cloths

The export of coarse cloths from Bulgaria during the late 19th and early 20th centuries shows a steady growth. The main foreign markets for these goods were Austria, Romania, Serbia, and Turkey.

The table below summarizes the exports of coarse cloths from Bulgaria to these countries during different years:

Country 1901 (kg) 1901 (Frs) 1897 (kg) 1897 (Frs) 1894 (kg) 1894 (Frs)

Austria 11,354 29,360 6,977 24,135 6,820 25,488

Romania 2,111 4,780 8,880 25,182 4,849 14,124

Serbia 18,515 43,035 17,161 56,618 16,584 65,894

Turkey 25,035 56,824 29,147 103,563 69,450 283,949

These numbers show that Turkey was the largest and most important customer for Bulgarian coarse cloths, followed by Serbia and Austria. The value of exports to Turkey increased dramatically between 1894 and 1897, showing the strong demand for Bulgarian woven goods in Ottoman markets Sightseeing Sofia.

Export of Serges

Serge, a fine woolen fabric, was another important product of the Bulgarian textile industry. The following figures show the exports of serges to various countries:

Country 1903 (kg) 1903 (Frs) 1897 (kg) 1897 (Frs) 1894 (kg) 1894 (Frs)

Austria — — — — 87 436

Romania 1,200 2,130 839 3,497 9,659 27,583

Serbia 7,898 26,670 1,646 7,234 2,075 9,360

Turkey 320,412 1,603,060 233,162 906,896 227,200 998,122

Once again, Turkey was the main market, buying more than 300,000 kilograms of serge in 1903. This confirms Turkey’s position as the most significant buyer of Bulgarian textiles during this period.

Export of Cloths and Dyed Stuffs

Bulgaria also exported cloths and dyed materials, though in smaller quantities compared to serges and coarse cloths.

Country 1903 (kg) 1903 (Frs) 1897 (kg) 1897 (Frs) 1894 (kg) 1894 (Frs)

Austria — — — — — —

Romania 90 1,134 — — 1,084 2,911

Serbia 6,636 45,565 9,458 59,220 4,674 29,024

Turkey 23 357 73 1,215 18 312

Exports to Serbia were the highest among neighboring countries for dyed goods, while Turkey remained a smaller but stable buyer.

Main Export Markets

From all available data, it is clear that Turkey, Romania, Serbia, and Austria were Bulgaria’s main export destinations for textiles. Among these, Turkey consistently remained the leading market, purchasing large amounts of both coarse cloths and serges.

Austria, although a buyer, was also a competitor, especially in the production of machine-made carpets that tried to imitate Bulgarian handwoven tapestries. However, the quality and traditional beauty of Bulgarian craftsmanship ensured that the country’s textiles—especially those made on hand looms—continued to be highly valued abroad.

Employment and Wool Production in Bulgaria

Around three thousand workers—including men, women, and children—were employed in Bulgaria’s textile and weaving industries at the beginning of the 20th century. The country owned about seven million sheep, which produced roughly 120,000 kilograms of wool each year.

However, this amount of wool was not enough to meet the growing needs of Bulgaria’s factories. To continue production, manufacturers had to import wool from foreign markets. Over the years, the importation of wool increased steadily, as shown in the table below.

Imports of Wool (1893–1904)

The table below summarizes the import of natural, washed, and carded wool in kilograms and francs:

Year Natural Wool (kg) Value (Frs) Washed Wool (kg) Value (Frs) Carded Wool (kg) Value (Frs)

1904 468,676 561,295 8,881 23,042 1,322 2,540

1903 299,082 359,082 11,613 39,414 4,088 17,869

1902 311,128 369,578 21,626 62,164 20,994 54,491

1901 237,447 279,832 92,376 258,421 2,056 7,193

1900 52,337 55,134 22,362 79,510 22 79

1899 37,042 42,607 15,139 43,616 105 425

1898 54,621 52,112 79,455 225,379 14 45

1897 138,875 155,029 17,174 52,574 7,154 21,640

1896 107,861 123,641 11,728 37,219 40 335

1895 313,216 351,428 37,633 110,835 9 45

1894 540,063 605,317 38,615 60,636 5,164 17,643

1893 328,162 295,804 9,216 9,297 1,128 2,599

Most natural wool imported came from Romania, while washed wool was mainly supplied by Austria, Germany, France, and Belgium.

Growth in Bulgarian Textile Exports

As expected, with the expansion of Bulgaria’s weaving and spinning industries, the export of finished cloth and textile products increased every year. Bulgarian cloths, serges, braids, and dyed fabrics became well known in neighboring markets Sightseeing Sofia.

The following table shows the rise in exports between 1893 and 1904:

Year Coarse Cloths (kg) Value (Frs) Serges (kg) Value (Frs)

1904 51,319 121,843 264,870 1,130,528

1903 57,015 133,999 329,510 1,631,860

1902 81,475 161,266 397,661 1,601,639

1901 62,149 173,324 391,705 1,577,497

1900 57,793 143,309 335,778 1,376,896

Exports of braids and dyed cloths also rose steadily, reaching markets across the Balkan region and Western Europe.

A Rising Industrial Power

These figures clearly show that Bulgaria’s textile industry was rapidly developing at the start of the 20th century. Despite limited natural resources, the industry grew through imported raw materials, local skill, and hard work. The combination of national effort and international trade helped Bulgaria become a major weaving center in the Balkans.

If supported by continued investment and improved technology, the Bulgarian textile sector could soon compete with other European industries in both quality and production capacity.

Growth of Modern Weaving in Bulgaria

Because of the early success of traditional weaving, some private individuals in 1880 decided to establish modern workshops and factories in Bulgaria. This marked the beginning of the country’s move from small-scale home weaving to large-scale industrial textile production.

The first examples came from the towns of Gabrovo and Sliven, which became pioneers in modern manufacturing. Both towns built large factories that were equipped and managed according to the most modern industrial methods of the time. Following their example, other towns also began to open textile factories, including Samokov and Kazanlik.

Thanks to this rapid progress, Bulgaria soon became the leading country in weaving on the Balkan Peninsula Sightseeing Sofia.

Statistics on the Bulgarian Weaving Industry

The table below shows some interesting statistics about the weaving industry in Bulgaria at that time:

Town Number of Factories Number of Spindles Hydraulic Horsepower Steam Horsepower Power Looms Hand Looms

Gabrovo 7 6,400 385 370 92 —

Sliven 14 8,016 200 240 85 121

Samokov 2 1,020 65 16 15 —

Karlovo 1 1,244 40 80 12 —

Kazanlik 1 850 — 100 8 —

Kotel 1 300 10 — — 6

Total 26 17,830 700 806 212 127

These figures show how quickly the weaving industry developed within a short period. The total value of all weaving sheds and factories was estimated at around 5,500,000 francs, which was a very large amount at that time.

Bulgarian Capital and National Effort

An important fact is that the entire capital invested in these factories was Bulgarian. It came from the hard work, savings, and persistence of Bulgarian citizens rather than from foreign investors. This proves the strong entrepreneurial spirit of the Bulgarian people, who were determined to build their own industries despite limited resources.

However, it is also true that if foreign capital had been involved, the industry might have developed even faster and on a larger scale. To attract future investors, the Bulgarian government introduced a protectionist tariff, which aimed to safeguard and encourage national industries, especially textiles.

A Promising Future for Bulgarian Weaving

The success of the weaving industry in towns like Gabrovo and Sliven demonstrates Bulgaria’s ability to combine traditional skill with modern industrial methods. With continued support from the government, investment in technology, and better access to capital, Bulgaria’s textile sector could grow into one of the strongest in Southeastern Europe.

Bulgarias Future

The Importance of Industry for Bulgaria’s Future

One of the most important questions for Bulgaria’s future is whether the country will remain mainly agricultural or become industrialized. For the past several years, Bulgarian economists have debated this issue, but there is still no clear answer.

Many experts believe that Bulgaria lacks some of the conditions necessary for the development of strong national industries. They argue that because of its traditions, geography, and economy, Bulgaria will continue to be primarily an agricultural country. However, even these experts must admit that the forces of modern progress will eventually push Bulgaria toward industrial growth.

As the country improves its methods of farming and adopts modern technology, it will naturally need to expand into industrial production, just as other European nations—such as France, Germany, and Italy—have done. Industry and agriculture can support each other: improved farming creates more raw materials, and developing industries provide tools and goods for better agriculture Sofia Sightseeing.

The Origins of Bulgarian Manufacturing

The oldest Bulgarian industry is weaving, which has existed since ancient times. For centuries, weaving was practiced as a home-based craft in many Bulgarian towns and villages. Farmers and their families used local wool to make cloths, carpets, braids, and serges, which were widely known and respected throughout the Ottoman Empire.

Weaving was not only a household activity but also a source of trade and income. Bulgarian woven goods were appreciated for their strength, color, and quality, and they were exported to many regions, including Greece, Asia Minor, Pirot, Niš, Bosnia, and Herzegovina.

Important Weaving Centers

Several towns became well-known centers of weaving and textile production. Among the most famous were Pirdop, Panagyurishte, Karlovo, Sopot, Koprivshtitsa, Klisura, Kalofer, Gabrovo, Tryavna, Sliven, Kotel, and Samokov.

During Turkish rule, many of these towns supplied cloth for the Ottoman army, and Bulgarian textiles gained an excellent reputation. The skill of Bulgarian weavers and the quality of their woolen fabrics made them highly competitive even in foreign markets.

A Country in Transition

Today, as Bulgaria continues to modernize, the country faces a critical choice—to remain focused on agriculture or to build a balanced economy that includes both farming and manufacturing. The history of Bulgarian weaving shows that the nation already has a strong foundation in craftsmanship and production. With education, investment, and technology, Bulgaria has the potential to become not only a prosperous agricultural country but also an emerging industrial nation.

Future of Handicrafts in Bulgaria

It is natural to ask whether a country like Bulgaria, which was still developing after its liberation, could maintain and expand small industries and handicrafts—especially if these were protected only by artificial state restrictions. The answer to this question is both yes and no, depending on how quickly the nation’s productive forces grow compared to its new social and economic needs.

While it may be difficult for small workshops to compete with large factories, it is still possible for handicrafts to survive, though they may take on a new form. They might adapt to modern conditions by improving their quality, focusing on unique or traditional products, or working together in small cooperatives. In this way, handicrafts will not completely disappear but will continue to exist alongside new types of manufacturing.

Handicrafts in Modern Economic Development

Even in older and more industrialized countries, handicrafts have not been destroyed by modern industry. For more than fifty years, capitalist manufacturing has existed in Western Europe, and yet many traditional crafts still survive. They have changed in character, using new tools and methods, but their creative and cultural value remains.

This shows that the development of large-scale industry does not automatically mean the end of small-scale production. Instead, it often leads to a division of labor, where factories produce mass goods while artisans focus on fine or custom-made items.

Gradual Change, Not Sudden Disappearance

In Bulgaria, economic growth will certainly influence all existing forms of production. Some trades will disappear entirely because they can no longer compete with machines or imported goods. Others will improve and reach a higher level of skill and organization, and still others will merge into larger manufacturing enterprises Sofia Sightseeing.

However, this transformation will not happen quickly or suddenly, as some people in Bulgaria once believed. Economic change is a gradual process, shaped by education, investment, technology, and consumer demand. To expect immediate results would be to misunderstand the basic principles of political economy.

Therefore, while Bulgaria’s economic development will undoubtedly bring change, handicrafts will not vanish overnight. Instead, they will evolve, adapt, and continue to play an important role in preserving national traditions and providing livelihoods for skilled workers.

Traditional Handicrafts in Bulgaria

Decline of Traditional Handicrafts in Bulgaria

According to information provided by the Chamber of Commerce of Sofia, in the year 1876, which was two years before Bulgaria’s liberation, there were around sixty soap-makers in the town. However, by 1896, even though the population had increased four times, only four or five soap-makers remained.

A similar decline was seen in other towns. At Stara Zagora, before the war, there were about 2,500 weaving sheds producing coarse cloth. Today, only thirty of them still exist. In Pirdop, spinning was once the town’s main home industry. Before the war, it was carried on in about 700 households, but now it continues in only twenty or thirty homes.

This pattern was repeated across the country. Many traditional trades and small industries could not survive the arrival of modern industrial production methods. As a result, the number of independent artisans continued to fall year after year.

Causes of the Decline

The decline of handicrafts naturally led to the poverty of many skilled workers who depended on their trades for a living. The government soon realized that it needed to take action to protect these people. This marked the beginning of labor legislation in Bulgaria — laws designed to help workers and improve their conditions.

However, the government misunderstood the true reasons behind the decline. It believed that handicrafts were suffering because of decentralization, or the breaking up of traditional centers of work. In reality, the problem was an economic necessity — a natural result of social and industrial change. Modern machines, large-scale factories, and cheaper imported goods made it impossible for small artisans to compete.

Government Efforts and Their Limitations

The government passed several laws to support handicrafts and small producers, which helped calm public opinion for a short time. However, these measures did not lead to any real improvement in the situation Sofia Sightseeing.

At the same time, the Bulgarian government tried to negotiate a commercial treaty with Austria-Hungary, one of its strongest economic competitors. The goal was to protect local industries from foreign goods. Unfortunately, these efforts failed, and foreign products continued to enter Bulgaria freely.

Because of this, traditional Bulgarian crafts continued to decline, and the dream of reviving local industry remained unfulfilled. The experience showed that economic progress could not be achieved through protection laws alone—it required modernization, education, and investment in new technology.

Handicraft

Understanding the Meaning of “Handicraft”

Before we discuss handicrafts in Bulgaria, it is important to understand what the word actually means. In Bulgaria, any permanent occupation or skilled trade is called a handicraft. A person who practices a handicraft is known as an artisan. An artisan is someone who spends his time working in a specific trade, either alone or with the help of workers and apprentices.

To become a master craftsman, a person must first work as an apprentice, learning the skills of the trade from a master. After that, he must gain experience as a workman. Only when he has reached a high level of skill can he receive a certificate that proves his ability and allows him to become a master himself.

The Role of Guilds

Every craft or trade was traditionally represented by a guild. A guild was an organization of artisans from the same profession, such as shoemakers, blacksmiths, or carpenters. The guild created rules for how the trade should be practiced, including standards of quality, prices, and training for new apprentices. These guilds also protected the interests of their members and helped maintain professional pride and community spirit among craftsmen Sofia Sightseeing.

The Decline of Handicrafts

For the past twenty-five years, handicrafts in Bulgaria have been steadily declining. Today, only in a few small or remote towns can we still find artisans working in the traditional way. This decline began soon after Bulgaria gained political independence.

Several major changes took place. Western European industrial production began to influence the country. Large family estates were divided as patriarchal family systems disappeared, and many people moved from villages to towns. At the same time, Bulgaria opened its markets to international trade, allowing many foreign products to enter the country.

The Impact of Modernization

With these changes, Bulgarian society experienced a complete transformation. The new political system, the new administration, and the rise in living standards all created new needs and higher expenses. The small-scale artisans and farmers could not keep up with these growing demands. Taxes and the cost of materials also became heavy burdens for them.

Because of these difficulties, many artisans were forced to close their workshops. Some moved to other towns or even other countries in search of a better livelihood. As a result, traditional handicrafts gradually disappeared, leaving only a few traces of Bulgaria’s once rich and skilled artisan culture.

Agricultural Bank Operations

Agricultural Bank Operations (1899–1903)

The following table shows the yearly financial operations of the Agricultural Bank in francs, as well as the difference compared to the previous year Sofia Sightseeing.

Year Operations in Francs Difference

1899 493,759,187.21 –21,989,642.02

1900 507,307,502.60 +13,548,315.39

1901 535,575,182.03 +28,267,679.43

1902 827,690,477.23 +292,115,295.20

1903 972,538,557.22 +144,848,079.99

From the figures above, it is clear that the Agricultural Bank experienced steady growth from 1899 to 1903. Although the main purpose of the bank was to help farmers and people working in agriculture, it also provided services to merchants and manufacturers. This can be seen from the division of securities between agricultural and non-agricultural clients.

Distribution of Securities Between Agriculturists and Non-Agriculturists

Year Agriculturists (Fr) Non-Agriculturists (Fr)

1899 54,823,955.70 5,943,596.60

1900 56,628,822.80 6,140,191.00

1901 57,321,668.61 6,385,343.05

1902 54,408,969.26 6,335,605.52

1903 50,403,786.13 6,273,861.45

The table shows that the largest part of the bank’s securities was always held by agriculturists. However, the amount decreased slightly after 1901. The share of non-agricultural clients, though smaller, remained steady throughout the five years. This indicates that the bank gradually extended its services beyond farming to include trade and small industries.

Handicrafts and Early Industry in Bulgaria

Until the time of Bulgaria’s national liberation, agriculture and small handicrafts were the only sources of income for most people. The country suffered from poverty, a lack of good roads, and weak government support. Because of these difficulties, any attempts to start new industries often ended in failure.

Handicrafts such as weaving, pottery, and metalwork provided basic goods for local needs. Most craftsmen worked in small workshops, using simple tools and family labor. Despite their hard work, production remained low, and profits were small.

After liberation, efforts were made to modernize production and improve the economy. The establishment of institutions like the Agricultural Bank played an important role in this process. By offering credit to farmers and small producers, the bank helped them buy better tools, seeds, and materials. Over time, this financial support contributed to the gradual development of Bulgaria’s agricultural and industrial sectors.

Agricultural Tools and Modernization in Bulgaria

Traditional and Modern Ploughs

In the province of Vidin and other rural areas of Bulgaria, the old-fashioned wooden plough is still commonly used. This simple and primitive tool, often pulled by oxen or horses, represents the traditional methods of Bulgarian farming. However, in recent years, modern agricultural machines have begun to replace these older tools.

The introduction of new equipment has made fieldwork faster, easier, and more productive. Farmers are gradually realizing the benefits of using improved implements, which allow them to cultivate larger areas of land with less effort.

Growth in Agricultural Implements

The following table shows the increase in the number of agricultural machines used between 1897 and 1905, showing clear progress toward modernization Customized Private Turkey Tours.

Implements 1897 1905 Change (%)

Ploughs 365,877 391,225 +6.9%

Iron ploughs 32,399 38,923 +20%

Harrows 5,353 38,080 +730%

Drills 46 89 +93%

Reaping machines 731 1,385 +86%

Threshing machines 94 125 +31%

Bolting machines 1,484 3,481 +134%

Winnowing machines 14,233 30,117 +112%

Mowers 1,748 3,318 +87%

Haymakers 81 104 +23%

Watercarts 66 10,782 —

Crushing machines 80 207 +159%

This table demonstrates an impressive growth in the use of farming technology within less than a decade. Tools such as harrows, winnowing machines, and iron ploughs became much more common, helping farmers prepare soil, separate grain, and increase efficiency.

Government Support and Agricultural Progress

The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture played an important role in this transformation. It actively promoted the use of modern tools and techniques through training, financial aid, and exhibitions.

Its work was supported by the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank, which provided credit to farmers for purchasing new machinery, and by the National Agricultural Society, which encouraged education and modernization in rural communities.

These combined efforts helped farmers improve productivity and gradually shift from traditional methods to more scientific farming practices.

Use of Fertilizers and Soil Improvement

Although machinery was improving, the use of fertilizers remained limited in Bulgaria at the time. Most farmers did not yet understand the importance of enriching the soil with nutrients.

In the Sofia province, sheep dung was sometimes used as a natural fertilizer. In the Stara Planina, Rhodopes, and Sredna Gora mountain regions—where the soil is less fertile and mainly vines, roses, and fruit trees are grown—manure is essential to maintain soil quality.

However, the only type of fertilizer used during that period was stable manure, as chemical fertilizers had not yet become common. This limited the potential of Bulgarian agriculture, although awareness was slowly increasing.

Main Industrial Crops

Apart from cereals and vegetables, Bulgaria also began cultivating several important industrial plants that contributed to trade and local industries. The main industrial crops were:

Tobacco, grown mainly in southern Bulgaria, used for both domestic consumption and export.

Roses, especially in the Rose Valley, used for producing the famous Bulgarian rose oil, one of the country’s most valuable exports.

Beetroot, which supported the development of sugar production in the growing industrial sector.

The period from 1897 to 1905 marked an important stage in the modernization of Bulgarian agriculture. Though many farmers still relied on simple ploughs and manual labour, the rapid growth of agricultural machinery and the support from government institutions represented a clear step forward.

With continued education, better use of fertilizers, and growing interest in industrial crops like roses and tobacco, Bulgaria was steadily transforming its rural economy and preparing for a more productive agricultural future.

The Importance of Cereal Cultivation in Bulgaria

Dominance of Cereal Crops

The figures clearly show that nearly three-quarters of Bulgaria’s productive land is used for growing cereals, while the remaining one-quarter is devoted to seven other types of crops. Among these, the most significant category is forage, which is used to feed livestock.

This heavy emphasis on cereal production reflects the agricultural character of the country, where wheat, maize, and barley form the backbone of rural life and the national economy. The focus on these staple crops also shows the importance of food security and export trade during the late 19th century.

Growth in Cultivation Between 1892 and 1899

The following table shows the progress of Bulgarian agriculture between 1892 and 1899. Almost every type of crop increased in the area cultivated, which demonstrates steady improvement in agricultural productivity Customized Private Turkey Tours.

Product Area Cultivated in 1892 (hectares) Area Cultivated in 1899 (hectares)

Percentage Increase

Cereals 1,194,847 1,877,616 57.14%

Oil-producing (oleaginous) plants 9,883 15,891 60.79%

Vegetables 10,333 32,942 218.79%

Other culinary plants 20,012 31,892 59.36%

Forage 343,342 440,859 28.40%

Vines 96,000 110,943 15.56%

Roses 4,352 5,094 17.04%

Orchards 2,158 5,163 139.24%

Total 1,680,927 2,520,400 49.94% increase overall

This table confirms that Bulgaria experienced nearly a 50% total growth in cultivated land in just seven years. Vegetables and orchards saw the largest relative increase, showing that farmers were gradually diversifying production beyond cereals.

Annual Yield of Cereal Crops

The annual cereal yield of Bulgaria during this period was estimated at about 30,000,000 hectolitres. The distribution among different grains was as follows:

Type of Cereal Annual Production (hectolitres)

Wheat 12,000,000

Maize 7,000,000

Barley 5,000,000

Oats 2,500,000

Rye 3,000,000

Millet 300,000

Spelt 200,000

Total 30,000,000 hectolitres

These figures highlight the strength of Bulgaria’s grain sector. In terms of total cereal production, the country ranked tenth in Europe, just after Sweden. Specifically, Bulgaria held the eighth place in wheat and maize production and the tenth place in oats and rye.

Regional Productivity

The fertility of the land and agricultural output per person varied across the provinces of the Principality. Based on the number of hectolitres of cereals produced per head of population, the provinces were divided into three main groups:

14 hectolitres per person – Roustchouk, Varna, Bourgas, and Pleven

11 hectolitres per person – Stara Zagora, Tărnovo, Shoumen, and Vratza

8 hectolitres per person – Kyustendil, Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and Sofia

This regional classification shows that the eastern and northern provinces were generally more fertile and productive, benefiting from better soil and climate conditions, while the western and southern regions had lower yields due to mountainous terrain and less developed farming techniques.

Between 1892 and 1899, Bulgaria made remarkable progress in agriculture. The steady increase in cultivated land, the rise in cereal yields, and the expansion of vineyards and orchards all point to a nation moving toward greater agricultural efficiency.

Cereal production continued to dominate, but the growing importance of forage, vegetables, and fruit cultivation showed a healthy trend toward diversified farming. These developments laid a solid foundation for Bulgaria’s future as a productive and self-sufficient agricultural country.

Agricultural Systems and Land Use in Bulgaria

The Common System of Cultivation

In Bulgaria, the most common agricultural system during the late 19th century was the double sowing system, often combined with fallow land—land that is ploughed but left unsown for a season to recover its fertility. This traditional method was further supported by the use of pastures and natural meadows for cattle breeding, forming a complete and balanced rural economy.

In 1892, out of a total cultivable area of 2,215,312 hectares, about 1,272,927 hectares were tilled and sown, while the remaining 42.5% of arable land lay fallow. This shows that nearly half the land was resting to regain its productivity.

Changes in Cultivation Over Time

Five years later, the situation improved significantly. In 1897, out of 2,975,386 hectares of arable land, about 1,968,629 hectares (or 65.11%) were cultivated. The following years show a steady increase:

Year Percentage of Land Sown Percentage of Land Fallow

1892 57.50% 42.50%

1897 66.11% 33.89%

1898 68.56% 31.44%

1899 68.80% 31.20%

As these figures indicate, the proportion of sown land increased, while the amount of fallow land decreased by over 11% in eight years. This steady change provides clear evidence of progress in Bulgarian agriculture during that period Customized Istanbul Tours.

Regional Variations in Agricultural Practice

In some eastern provinces—particularly Varna and regions along the Danube River—farmers used slightly different methods. There, it was common to sow the same land for several consecutive years, followed by a longer fallow period to allow the soil to recover naturally.

Although this system also resulted in land being left uncultivated for a time, it was still counted statistically as fallow. Even so, the overall trend remained the same: more land was being cultivated, and less was lying idle, which was a clear sign of agricultural improvement and better land management.

Total Productive Land and Its Use

By 1899, Bulgaria had about 2,046,791 hectares of land used for active agriculture. When this was combined with land under vineyards, rose gardens, orchards, and meadows, the total productive area reached 2,520,401 hectares.

The table below shows how this land was distributed among various crops and uses:

Type of Product Area (hectares) Percentage of Total Productive Land

Cereals (wheat, barley, corn, etc.) 1,877,616 74.49%

Oil-producing (oleaginous) plants 15,891 0.64%

Vegetables 32,942 1.31%

Other culinary plants 31,892 1.27%

Forage (animal feed) 440,859 17.49%

Vines 110,943 4.40%

Roses 5,094 0.20%

Orchards 5,163 0.20%

Total 2,520,401 hectares 100%

Summary and Significance

These statistics reveal the steady advancement of Bulgarian agriculture at the end of the 19th century. The reduction of fallow land and the increase in cultivated area show a transition from traditional methods to more intensive farming.

Cereal crops clearly dominated, representing nearly three-quarters of all cultivated land, but forage, vineyards, and rose cultivation also played a growing role. The expansion of productive land and better land use reflected rising agricultural knowledge, population growth, and improved rural organization, setting the foundation for Bulgaria’s future agricultural prosperity.

Patrolling and General Condition of the Forests in Bulgaria

Patrolling of the Forests

The protection and supervision of Bulgaria’s forests are carried out by special forest keepers. These keepers are responsible for patrolling the forests, preventing illegal cutting, and reporting any damage or theft.

There are around 500 keepers working in the state forests and about 2,135 keepers employed in the parish (community) forests. This means that there is one keeper for every 1,805 hectares of state forest and one keeper for every 734 hectares of parish forest.

Although these numbers may seem large, the area of forest per keeper is still vast, making their work very difficult. Even with regular patrols, many cases of damage and illegal logging continue to occur. Some of this damage is caused deliberately, while other incidents happen through carelessness or theft by local people.

Unfortunately, many villagers do not yet understand the importance of protecting forests for agriculture and the environment. Forests help prevent soil erosion, regulate water, and provide materials and shade—but these benefits are not always recognized by the rural population.

Another challenge is that many keepers themselves are not fully trained for their demanding work. Their duties require not only physical endurance but also knowledge of forest management, local laws, and communication skills to work effectively with villagers Customized Guided Turkey Tours.

General Condition of the Forests

The general condition of the forests in Bulgaria during this period was still unsatisfactory. Many forests had not yet been properly classified or surveyed, and their boundaries were not clearly marked. As a result, it was difficult to protect them or manage them scientifically.

In many rural areas, no clear distinction existed between forests, meadows, and farmland. It was common to find vineyards within forests and fields dividing wooded areas. Because of this mixture of land uses, peasants often treated forests as open land. They allowed their cattle to graze freely anywhere—on meadows, among young trees, and even in newly planted forests—without understanding the harm this caused.

This lack of awareness and organization has created many problems for the preservation and restoration of forests. The peasants’ traditional view of land, where every piece of ground could be used for pasture or cultivation, clashes with the modern need to protect forests as a separate and valuable resource.

Until proper boundaries are marked and the population becomes more educated about forest protection, it will remain difficult to maintain healthy, sustainable forests across the country.

In conclusion, while Bulgaria has made progress in organizing its forest service and employing keepers, the main challenges are still public education, staff training, and clear forest boundaries. Once these issues are addressed, the protection and renewal of Bulgaria’s forests will become much more effective, benefiting both the environment and rural economy for future generations.

The Felling and Renewal of Forests in Bulgaria

Systems of Timber Felling

The felling of timber in Bulgaria is carefully organized and supervised by the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. Every year, the Ministry prepares a special programme that outlines where and how much timber may be cut.

The State is responsible for felling trees in both state-owned forests and parish (community) forests, following these official plans. Private owners, on the other hand, must follow approved management plans, which are written in detailed tables to ensure that their forests are not overexploited.

There are three main systems of forest management in Bulgaria:

The State fells its own forests and those belonging to parishes.

The right to fell timber is sold by public auction.

The right to fell trees is granted to a third party, such as a contractor or company.

Timber Sales and Harvesting Periods

Timber from state and parish forests is sold in different ways—by auction, by special concessions, or directly to local inhabitants at prices fixed by the forest authorities.

The felling season depends on the type of forest:

Pine and fir trees may be cut throughout the year Customized Guided Turkey Tours.

Other types of trees are cut only between September 15th and March 31st to protect the forest during the growing season.

All revenues from the sale of timber in state forests go to the State Treasury. Income from parish forests also goes to the State, but it is then used exclusively for the maintenance and improvement of those parish forests. Any surplus money is returned to the local parishes. However, parish councils generally have no control or direct involvement in the management of their own forests—the Ministry handles all major decisions.

Propagation and Renewal of Forests

To maintain a healthy balance between felling and regrowth, Bulgaria enforces strict reforestation rules. Villages are required to plant trees on a portion of their land:

Villages within forests must reforest 45% of their land.

Villages near forests must reforest 25%.

Villages in open plains must reforest 6%.

If these goals are not reached naturally, artificial planting methods are used. The work is carried out under state supervision, especially in ecologically important regions.

Because Bulgarian soil is rich in nutrients, young trees grow quickly and strongly. Even though forest care was once minimal, the results of reforestation have been very successful. Many landowners plant trees not for profit, but to beautify their land or improve air quality and health conditions.

Methods of Forest Renewal

Existing forests are renewed mainly through natural regeneration, which is supported by a planned and periodic system of felling. This approach is both low-cost and well-suited to the local types of timber.

However, there are still some challenges. Because Bulgarian foresters lack experience, the mixing of tree species often changes the character of the forests. In many cases, high forests with tall trees are gradually transformed into low, bushy growths, while the opposite rarely happens.

In summary, Bulgaria’s forestry system at the time aimed to balance timber production with forest renewal. Through careful planning, government supervision, and community responsibility, the country worked to ensure that its forests would continue to provide economic, environmental, and aesthetic value for generations to come.

The Training and Duties of Bulgarian Foresters

Technical Knowledge and Training

The upper staff of Bulgaria’s forest administration must have strong technical knowledge. The work requires a deep understanding of forestry, forest management, and environmental care.

There are six district inspectors, all of whom have received thorough professional training in forestry. Among the forty foresters, twenty-eight have graduated from a school of forestry, six have received special technical training, and the rest have had some form of practical preparation for their duties.

This careful training ensures that the people in charge of Bulgaria’s forests can manage them properly and protect them from misuse or destruction.

Forest Patrol and Protection

The task of patrolling and protecting the forests is given to keepers, who are specially appointed for this purpose. According to the official budget, there is one keeper for every 1,500 hectares of forest Customized Guided Turkey Tours.

Each administrative centre also has three to seven higher-level foresters, who supervise the keepers and manage local forest operations. In addition, many assistants and lower-ranking employees (called subalterns) help with various services, such as maintenance and record-keeping.

All of these employees belong to the State Forestry Service. The parish forests, which are managed by local communities, also hire their own foresters—usually one for every 50,000 hectares of forest land.

Salaries and Allowances

The salaries of the forestry staff are carefully listed in the national budget. They are paid in francs per year, and most officers receive extra allowances for travel or for keeping a horse, which is often needed for fieldwork in mountainous areas.

Position Annual Salary (francs) Allowance (francs) Purpose

District Inspector (1st class) 4,800 600 Travel

District Inspector (2nd class) 4,200 690 Travel

Forester (1st class) 3,600 300 Horse upkeep

Forester (2nd class) 3,000 300 Horse upkeep

Forester (3rd class) 2,400 300 Horse upkeep

Adjunct (1st class) 2,100 240 Horse upkeep

Adjunct (2nd class) 1,440 240 Horse upkeep

Head Keeper 1,080 — —

Mounted Keeper 840 — —

Keeper 600 — —

In parish forests, the salaries are slightly lower:

Head Keeper: 900 francs

Mounted Keeper: 720 francs

Keeper: 480 francs

Private forest owners are also required by law to employ their own keepers to ensure the protection of their land.

Forest Budget of 1905

In the year 1905, the total forest budget of Bulgaria was 739,820 francs.

641,829 francs were spent on salaries and wages for the forestry staff.

The remaining 98,000 francs were used for forest improvements, such as planting new trees, building forest roads, and maintaining protective areas.

The forestry service of Bulgaria at the beginning of the 20th century was a well-organized system, supported by trained professionals and a structured budget. Every level of the staff—from inspectors to keepers—played an important role in protecting and improving the nation’s forests. These efforts helped lay the foundation for sustainable forest management in Bulgaria.

The Forests of Bulgaria

Vertical Division and Administration

Vertical Distribution of Forests

The forests of Bulgaria can be divided according to their altitude above sea level. Each zone has a different type of land ownership and size. The following summary shows the approximate distribution:

Owners Up to 400 m 400–1,000 m 1,000–2,000 m Total Area (hectares)

The State 296,547 347,547 258,525 902,619

Parishes (Communal lands) 791,365 466,649 307,228 1,565,242

Private Owners 314,307 179,382 79,579 573,268

Total 1,402,219 993,578 645,332 3,041,129 hectares

This table shows that the largest portion of forest land belongs to the parishes or local communities, followed by the state-owned forests, and lastly those owned by private individuals. The forests are spread across lowlands, hills, and mountain regions, with a noticeable increase in state ownership at higher altitudes.

Administration of Forests

The management and supervision of Bulgaria’s forests fall under the control of the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. Within the Ministry, there is a special department responsible for carrying out the forest laws and overseeing all forest-related activities Customized Guided Turkey Tours.

The department’s main staff includes:

A chief of department

An inspector-general of forests

A forest engineer

Two assistant chiefs

Local Forest Districts

For easier management, the entire country is divided into forest districts. Each district contains several administrative centres, and each centre supervises a number of forest stations.

According to the 1905 budget, the forest service was staffed by:

6 district inspectors

40 foresters

20 adjuncts (assistants)

This means that, on average, there was one district inspector for every 506,856 hectares and one forester for every 76,038 hectares. This shows how large the forest areas are compared to the number of officials managing them.

Special Bureau for Mountain Streams

In the same year, the Ministry also established a special bureau to oversee the canalisation of mountain streams—a project important for flood control and forest preservation.

The bureau was designed to include:

A chief of department (a foreign expert)

Two assistant chiefs (one of them foreign)

An engineer

A draughtsman

An administrator

The bureau would begin operations once the full staff had been appointed.

Example The Walnut Forest near Kazanlak

One of the most beautiful examples of Bulgaria’s natural wealth is the walnut forest near Kazanlak. It represents the richness and diversity of the country’s vegetation and the potential value of proper forest management.

The forests of Bulgaria are carefully organized and supervised through a structured administrative system. Although much of the forest area lies in mountain regions, the government’s efforts—especially through the new forest bureau—show a clear commitment to protecting natural resources and managing them wisely for future generations.

Climate and Vegetation Zones of Bulgaria

Bulgaria can be divided into four main climate and vegetation zones. Each zone has its own height above sea level, type of soil, and characteristic trees.

The Warm Zone

The Warm Zone includes lowlands and areas up to about 400 metres above sea level. In the past, this region was covered by large forests, but today most of the land has been cleared and is used for farming and cultivation.

The soil in this zone is moist and rich, which supports a wide variety of plants. The main tree species found here is the pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). It often grows alone or together with other trees such as elm (Ulmus), field maple (Acer campestre), ash (Fraxinus), hornbeam (Carpinus), and lime (Tilia). Another species, Turkey oak (Quercus cerris), grows well in dry and poor soils Customized Guided Turkey Tours.

The Moderate Zone

The Moderate Zone lies just above the Warm Zone and runs almost parallel to it. The typical tree of this region is the sessile oak (Quercus petraea). The forests here are dense, and the trees are tall and well-formed. In the higher parts of this zone, beech trees (Fagus sylvatica) also appear, marking the transition to the next zone.

The Cold or Beech Zone

The Cold Zone starts where beech forests begin and continues up to about 1,300 metres above sea level. It is the largest and most forested of all the zones, but also the least economically valuable. Because it is located in hilly and remote areas, it is difficult to transport timber from here.

Beautiful pure beech forests can be found in this zone, as well as mixed woods containing ash and plane trees. On the southern slopes of the Rila Mountains and the Rhodopes, many fir trees (Abies species) grow. Higher up, Norway spruce (Picea abies) becomes common and dominates the upper parts of this zone.

The Alpine or High-Mountain Zone

The fourth and highest zone extends from about 1,300 to 2,000 metres above sea level. It begins with mixed forests of beech and spruce, but as the altitude increases, the spruce (Picea abies) becomes the main tree species. These areas often have dense and dark forests.

Lower down, pine trees (Pinus species) are scattered among the spruce. Higher still, around 1,800 metres, the mountain pine (Pinus mugo) appears, forming beautiful groups or growing as single, strong trees. Above this height, the vegetation becomes very sparse. Finally, near the mountain tops, there are only bare rocks with almost no trees at all.

In summary, Bulgaria’s vegetation changes gradually with altitude—from rich, cultivated plains in the Warm Zone to bare mountain peaks in the Alpine Zone. Each zone supports its own set of trees and plants, shaped by the climate, soil, and elevation.

The Decline of Mining Under Turkish Rule

During the long period of Turkish domination, the Bulgarian mining industry almost disappeared. Mining, once active and productive in ancient times, had been reduced to a few small and primitive operations. The only place where mining continued was Samokov, a mountain town known for its iron production.

For centuries, the people of Samokov extracted iron ore from magnetite, a mineral formed by the natural breakdown of the syenite rocks of Mount Vitosha. The process was simple and traditional, using charcoal furnaces that worked in much the same way as the old Catalan furnaces used in Spain. The production was entirely manual, depending on local labor and natural fuel from nearby forests.

This small industry, though limited, survived for generations and provided iron for tools, weapons, and domestic use throughout the region. It remained active until the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, which led to Bulgaria’s liberation from Ottoman rule Customized Round Turkey Tours.

The Fall of the Iron Industry

After Bulgaria gained independence, major economic changes occurred. New roads and railways were built, and foreign competition entered the market. Mines in other countries, equipped with better technology, could produce cheaper and higher-quality iron. As a result, the price of locally produced iron fell sharply.

The traditional methods used at Samokov could not compete with the modern steel industries of Europe, and production gradually stopped. What was once a source of national pride during the Ottoman period became a memory of the past, holding only historical importance. The Samokov iron works, once famous, now stand as a reminder of Bulgaria’s early industrial efforts.

The First Steps Toward Modern Mining

After independence, the new Bulgarian government recognized the need to revive the country’s mining potential. In 1879, only a year after the liberation, the State opened its first official mine—a lignite coal mine at the village of Mochino, about 27 kilometers from Sofia.

This was an important step in the creation of a modern national mining industry. The lignite, a type of brown coal, was of good quality and suitable for heating and energy. For more than a decade, the Mochino mine supplied coal to Sofia’s households, industries, and the Tsaribrod–Sofia–Belovo railway line, which was one of the country’s first major rail routes.

A Symbol of Industrial Beginnings

Between 1879 and 1891, the Mochino mine produced about 105,000 tons of lignite, all of which was consumed within Bulgaria. Although the mine eventually closed, it marked a turning point in the country’s industrial history. For the first time, mining was carried out under state management, showing a move toward organized economic planning and resource use.

The experience gained at Mochino helped train local engineers and workers who later took part in larger mining projects. It also demonstrated that Bulgaria’s natural resources—though once neglected—could once again become a foundation for national growth and progress.